Your Daughters Shall Prophesy: Women in Ministry in the Church

Your Daughters
ShaU Prophesy

WOMEN IN MINISTRY IN THE CHURCH

Edited

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Women in Ministry in the Church

Edited by

John E. Toews
Valerie Rempel
Katie Funk Wiebe

Winnipeg, MB CANADA

Hillsboro, KS U.S.A.

Your Daughters Shall Prophesy

Copyright © 1992 by Kindred Press, Winnipeg, Manitoba

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without written permission from the publisher, except by
a reviewer, who may quote brief passages in a review.

Published simultaneously by Kindred Press, Winnipeg,
Manitoba R2L 1E5 and Kindred Press, Hillsboro, Kansas,
67063.

Canadian Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Your daughters shall prophesy

ISBN: 0-921788-14-2

1. Women clergy - Biblical teaching. 2. Women in
church work - Mennonite Brethren Church 3. Women in
the Mennonite Brethren Church. 4. Mennonite Brethren
Church - Clergy. I. Toews, John E. II. Rempel, Valerie.
III. Wiebe, Katie Funk.

BV676.Y88 1992 262M4973 C92-098034-1

Book design by Lordell Consultants
Cover design by Fred Koop

Printed in Canada by Christian Press

International Standard Book Number 0-921788-14-2

"AND IT SHALL COME TO PASS
IN THE LAST DAYS SAITH GOD,
I WILL POUR OUT OF MY SPIRIT UPON ALL FLESH:
AND YOUR SONS AND
YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY,
AND YOUR YOUNG MEN SHALL SEE VISIONS,
AND YOUR OLD MEN SHALL DREAM DREAMS:
AND ON MY SERVANTS
AND ON MY HANDMAIDENS
I WILL POUR OUT IN THOSE DAYS OF MY SPIRIT;
AND THEY SHALL PROPHESY."

Acts 2:1718

APPRECIATION

A book is always the product of many persons. In
this case the many persons include the Board of
Reference and Counsel of the General Conference of
Mennonite Brethren Churches which mandated the
book; the Reference and Counsel Task Force on
Women in Ministry which refined the proposal for the
book; the contributors who gracefully accepted numer-
ous editorial suggestions and changes by the editors,
as well as delays in publication; Gilbert Brandt, the
former editor of Kindred Press who offered valuable
editorial assistance; and hundreds of men and women
who have asked about the book and encouraged work
on it. To the many who have contributed to this book
we express our appreciation.

The translation of the Bible used most often in this
book is the New International Version (NIV).

John E. Toews
Valerie Rempel
Katie Funk Wiebe

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

vi

Edmund Janzen

How to Use This Book

viii

1.

Why This Book

1

John E. Toews

Search and pain within the Mennonite Brethren
Church are the reasons for this book

9

iviemDers Dy Li-race

1 H
1 /

David Ewert

A survey of the liberating and restrictive New
Testament texts

The New Testament clearly records the active in*
volvement of women in the life and mission of the
church, but the divine order of creation is not re-
versed by redemption.

3.

Adam Named Her Eve

31

Elmer A. Martens

Genesis 1 — 3

Men and women are equal before God, but God gave
the man a primary responsibility. The roles of men
and women are differentiated.

4.

Equality or Subordination?

47

Allen R. Guenther

Genesis 1 — 3, another view

God's redemptive plan was to reverse the con-
sequences of the fall. To continue male domination
is to deny the reconciling work of God in the re-
lationships between the sexes.

iii

5. She Speaks with Wisdom 61

Lorraine E. Matties
Gordon H. Matties

A survey of the Old Testament Scriptures

The Old Testament demonstrates that women are
neither restricted nor exempt from answering God's
call to ministry in all its various forms, regardless of
the limitations a society may impose.

6. Jesus and Women 75

Timothy Geddert

A review of the Gospel texts

Jesus* radical way of relating to women has im-
portant implications for the contemporary church
seeking to live out Jesus' vision for humanity.

7. Neither Male Nor Female 89

Raymond O. Bystrom

Galatians 3:28 and Pauline Practice

Equality in Christ refers to both spiritual status be-
fore God and to ministerial function in the body of
Christ.

8. Covered and Quiet? 105

Katrina Poetker

1 Corinthians 11:2-16 and 14:34-36

Paul recognized women's involvement and lead-
ership in the church. The passages teach the com-
patibility and mutual interdependence of men and
women in God's kingdom.

9. The Husband Is the Head of the Wife 121

John E. Toews

Ephesians 5:21-33

This passage concerns family order, not church or-
der. The call for submission is a limited one, to the
husband only. The only command is to the husband
to love his wife.

iv

10. 1 Permit No Woman to Teach

137

John E. Toews

1 Timothy 2:8-15

The focus of the text is on the husband/wife re-
lationship, not on public worship. The unlearned
wife is to be taught by her husband. She is not to
teach her husband or to link teaching with sexual
favors.

11. Women in the Christian Church 157

Marilyn Peters

A review of women in church history

New and reform movements tend to be open to the
ministry of women. As movements institutionalize,
women are restricted in ministry and denied the
ministries earlier performed.

12. Women in the Mennonite Brethren Church 173
Katie Funk Wiebe

A survey of women as Mennonite Brethren

Mennonite Brethren women have always contrib-
uted to the work of the church, including its found-
ing in 1860. That contribution, because it is social
history, was often unrecorded. Their contribution to
various ministries continues to grow.

13.WhatIsatStake?

191

John E. Toews
Valerie Rempel

A review of the issues in the book and some sugges-
tions for the church

About the Authors

211

Discussion Questions

213

v

PREFACE

It is a privilege to offer some reflections and observa-
tions on the book you hold in your hands. It is the prod-
uct of much work on the part of many people. The crea-
tion of Your Daughters Shall Prophesy was
recommended to the Board of Reference and Counsel of
the General Conference of Mennonite Brethren
Churches by the Task Force on Women in Ministry. The
1987 General Conference convention in Abbotsford,
B.C., approved that recommendation, recognizing the
need to study this very important issue in our churches.

Conference leadership has been keenly aware of the
dimensions of the women's ministry issue for over a dec-
ade. While the context of this discussion is much larger
than our denomination, it was felt that our churches
would benefit from engaging in this dialogue, since our
conference resolutions on the role of women (1981 and
1984) surfaced such diverse viewpoints within our
ranks.

Thus we offer this book. Its purpose is to study the
key biblical passages regarding women in ministry, and
it is intended to stimulate study and discussion at the
local church level. The reader will notice two different
points of view outlined in the book. I wish to remind us
that the writers are brothers and sisters of a common
faith and good will. They arrive at different under-
standings of what the Scriptures teach following honest
and prayerful study. As noted in the thirteenth chapter
of this book, men and women who are deeply committed
to Christ can and do interpret God's Word differently.
When that happens we must be gracious in our pro-
nouncements (as these writers are) and humbly ac-

vi

knowledge with the Apostle Paul that we still "see
through a glass darkly." We ask you to participate in
that spirit as well.

As moderator of the General Conference, I invite you
to read, reflect, pray, and discuss together with fellow
believers in your community of faith. Hopefully the Lord
of the church can use these pages to lead us deeper into
our understanding of the issues involving women in
ministry so that we can find the Spirit's direction and
blessing. May we agree that we want to be and do what
God wants us to be and do.

Thank you, editors, John E. Toews, Valerie Rempel,
and Katie Funk Wiebe, for making this study guide pos-
sible. And to all who have written chapters that will
help us grow in our understanding, we express our sin-
cere appreciation.

Edmund Janzen
Moderator
Mennonite Brethren Church

vii

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Home Bible study groups. Church Bible study
groups. Prayer groups, Sunday school classes. Church
councils. Leadership groups or retreats. The name
doesn't matter. What is important is that you and some
other Christians want to study the Bible. You want to
learn more about the Scriptures and how to make the
truths of the Word work in daily life. You see a small
group as an opportunity for the church to come alive.

No two small groups fit the same pattern, but if they
are to survive successfully, they usually possess the
characteristics given in the following paragraphs.

THE GROUP

Keep the group small enough for personal inter-
action, yet large enough for meaningful discussion.
About twelve to fifteen members who meet regularly is a
good size. Plan to have meetings stop and start regu-
larly, and then stick to your schedule.

LEADER

Choose someone to direct the study; call the person a
facilitator if you wish. It need not be someone who is an
expert in the topic. A facilitator arranges for meeting
times, discussion leaders, and so forth without being
pushy. Involve both men and women in planning the
study and carrying it out.

A SENSE OF PURPOSE
You have begun an interesting and challenging
study of a significant topic: the ministry of women in the
church. In the process you will learn something about
biblical interpretation, about specific scriptural texts,
about the way the church functions as an interpreting
community of believers, about change, and possibly also
about yourself.

viii

COMMITMENT

The group must be committed to regular attendance
even when the discussion becomes uncomfortable. Be
open to the working of the Holy Spirit. In a small group
the Spirit can work if each member is honest about him
or herself, is concerned about others and their needs,
and is willing to respect confidences. Deny yourself the
urge to pry into the inner lives of other members to sat-
isfy your curiosity.

SUFFICIENT STRUCTURE TO ACCOMPLISH
THE PURPOSE OF THE GROUP

The Major Issues

Encourage everyone to read pp. 191-198 of Chapter
13 before reading the rest of the book. These pages
summarize the major issues in the book, and the issues
on which the writers will disagree.

Central Theme

The main point of each chapter is summarized in the
Table of Contents. Don't wander from this main point to
other side issues even though they may look interesting.
Keep track of them and work with them another time.

Bible Study

Read the suggested Scripture passages before com-
ing together. Ask yourself what they say to you. What
did the biblical writer intend for them to say to the per-
sons for whom they were originally written? Use more
than one translation as you work with the Scripture.
Include other materials on the topic, if you desire. Make
sure members are clear about the terminology used in
each chapter. The writers have tried to keep the lan-
guage at a layperson's level, but they may not always
have succeeded. If needed, slow down and clarify terms
and concepts.

ix

Discussion

Ask everyone to formulate a question. Use the ques-
tions at the back of the book as a guide to stimulate
discussion.

Most people don't like discussion groups if one per-
son monopolizes all the time, if one or more press opin-
ions without any basis for their comments, or if no one
feels free to add fresh input or is willing to see other
sides of the issue. Don't confuse dead silence with lis-
tening silence.

Ask everyone to contribute an answer and to par-
ticipate even if it is only by looking interested or nod-
ding his or her head. Avoid dropping a matter with
"Well, we can pray about it," or "We won't be able to rec-
oncile the matter, so let's go on."

Project for the Week

Encourage each member to pick a project for the
week related to the theme to keep it alive in their
thoughts until you come together again. This project can
be something like asking friends how they deal with the
issues under discussion in their family life, listening to a
woman preach, teach, or lead the singing, talking to a
woman missionary about her role overseas, or dis-
cussing with your pastor how he feels about sharing
ministry opportunities with women.

Plan to learn more about this important topic so
that the pain often associated with it can lead to growth
and harmony. The goal is working toward congrega-
tional consensus on the issue.

x

WHY THIS BOOK?

1

John E. Toews

The Search for Understanding in the Church

Dr. Paul Brand, medical missionary to the lepers of
India, often told his audiences that a leprosy patient
lacks skin sensation and "nobody realizes what it
means when you cant feel pain. You need to surround
yourself with new defenses." In Indian villages the rats
soon learned that it was quite safe to take a bite from
insensitive hands or feet when a person was asleep, so
the missionaries provided the patients with cats. If a
person doesn't feel his hand or foot when it is injured,
we speak of the foot or hand as dead. It's the pain that
makes us realize that the hand or foot belongs to us,"
said Brand. "Our survival depends upon pain." — Ten
Figures for God by Dorothy Clarke Wilson

Pain in the church and a search for understanding is
the reason for this book. The church is a particular one,
the Mennonite Brethren, a member of the larger family
of Anabaptist-Mennonite churches. The search and pain

2 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

is a universal story. It is the story of people struggling
to understand the role and ministry of women in the
church, and often of women struggling with the church's
resistance to their calling to and giftedness for ministry.

Search

The current Mennonite Brethren search began in
1973. Allen Guenther and Herb Swartz, graduate stu-
dents in biblical studies in Toronto and faculty members
at the Mennonite Brethren Bible College in Winnipeg
(now Concord College), wrote an article for the
Mennonite Brethren Herald, the publication of the
Canadian Mennonite Brethren churches. They argued
for the equality of women and men as believers. The
Holy Spirit gifts all Christians to lead and to teach, they
wrote; the restrictive Pauline texts deal with problems
of decorum rather than issues of office. They concluded
that women should be encouraged to exercise their gifts
in the church.

Twice prior to 1973, the Mennonite Brethren Church
had spoken to the issue of women in the church. In 1879
women were allowed to attend conference sessions "as
the Spirit leads," as long as they did not teach and re-
mained silent during "the brotherly deliberations." Each
local church was freed to decide if women could vote in
church meetings.

In 1957, following the ordination of at least 85 wom-
en for missionary service over a period of six decades (35
of whom were single), the church determined to dif-
ferentiate "the public gospel preaching ministry" of men
and women by commissioning rather than ordaining
women. The intent was not to exclude women from min-
istry but not to "admit sisters to the public gospel

WHY THIS BOOK? 3

preaching ministry on par with brethren" (General
Conference Year Book [GCYB hereafter], 1957, p. 106).

Between 1957 and 1973 a small group of women be-
gan to write about their struggle with the church's re-
cent restrictive interpretation. They confessed their pain
at the church's refusal to recognize their call to ministry
and to affirm their spiritual giftedness. I recall vividly a
rather restrictive sermon on 1 Corinthians 14 in a
Mennonite Brethren church in early 1973. At least five
women spoke with me following the service, several in
tears, asking that I speak at the next women's meeting
to outline a different understanding of the text. They re-
spected their pastor, but knew in their hearts that there
was something wrong with his interpretation of the New
Testament. I declined their request because I did not
want to become a divisive force in the church.

Six months later I did outline a more affirmative in-
terpretation of the New Testament in a different context
halfway across the continent. During the meeting a
married woman broke down and cried, almost un-
controllably. After the session she attacked me verbally.
She was fearful of the freedom I was offering her in the
church. She recoiled in anger despite encouragement
from her husband to be more open to the exercise of her
gifts in the church. Several years later she found free-
dom to move into areas of ministry.

The Guenther and Swartz article put the issue on
the table for discussion in the church. David Ewert, the
leading New Testament teacher in the church, was
asked to present a study conference paper to the
Canadian Conference in 1974. A modified version of this
paper was presented again to a General Conference
Study Conference in 1980 (Chapter 2). Ewert affirmed
the Guenther and Swartz interpretation. Not only did

4

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

he acknowledge the complexity of the issue, but he
warned the church that it always tends to read the Bible
in the light of its own practices. The church is tempted,
he observed, to accuse scholars of unfaithfulness when
they question such teaching and practice. Ewert ex-
horted the church not to "absolutize prohibitions'' de-
signed to address local first-century excesses. He urged
the church to free women for the exercise of their gifts.
The only restriction he placed on the ministry of women
was the ordained pastoral ministry.

The 1974 Study Conference paper was followed by a
Canadian Conference resolution in 1975. It instructed
the church to "rethink its traditional stand with respect
to the place of the woman in the church. . . . The biblical
texts which put strictures on the place of the woman in
the Church we believe must be understood, in part, in
the context of local violations of the rules of propriety,
and in the light of the status of womanhood in the first-
century culture" (CCYB, 1975, p. 9). Churches were ex-
horted to elect women to church committees and coun-
cils, and as delegates to church-wide conferences. At the
same time, the churches were urged to recognize a dis-
tinction between the function of men and women in the
church. Women were not to be ordained for the preach-
ing and pastoral ministry nor elected to boards and of-
fices with "eldership" responsibilities.

The 1980 Study Conference paper also resulted in a
resolution, this time to the churches of North America
through the 1981 General Conference of Mennonite
Brethren Churches. The resolution was presented by
the Board of Reference and Counsel (BORAC). It encour-
aged the churches to discover and utilize the spiritual
resources of women for "various ministries in the church
and in the world" including "participation in local

WHY THIS BOOK? 5

church and conference ministries" (GCYB, 1981, p. 47).
Such ministry was limited only by the final clause that
"the Mennonite Brethren should not ordain women to
pastoral leadership." The resolution was meant "to en-
courage the expanded involvement of women in the
work of the church, not to limit their ministry." But the
delegates perceived the resolution as restrictive.
Therefore, they received it with the understanding that
it be edited to read more positively.

BORAC reported to the next General Conference in
1984 that the question of "the ministry of women in our
churches" remained an unsettled issue and needed con-
tinued study. It recognized that an increasing number of
women were graduating with seminary degrees, and en-
couraged "the churches and our conferences to be open
to their services." The board asserted that "more encour-
agement and more open doors for service should be giv-
en to our sisters." It also reported that it intended to ex-
pand the 1981 resolution for the next convention.

BORAC presented its more affirmative and ex-
panded resolution to the General Conference in 1987.
The resolution read as follows:

We believe that God created both men and women in his
image, and therefore both share an equal humanity before
God (Gen. 1:27).

We believe that all Christians are joint heirs with Christ,
and therefore both women and men experience full salva-
tion in him (Gal. 3:28).

We believe that the Spirit grants gifts to all believers, ir-
respective of gender, for diverse ministries both in the
church and in the world, and therefore both men and
women minister God's grace (1 Pet. 4:10).

6 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

We believe that God calls all women and men to serve in
the church and in the world; we also believe he calls some
women, as well as some men, for ministries within the
context of the church (Acts 2:17, 18; Eph. 4:lff.; Rom.
12:4-8; 1 Pet. 4:10).

We believe that since God has gifted and called both men
and women, the church should recognize and affirm them
in their ministry for the common good of the church (1
Cor. 12:7; Rom. 16:1-16).

We urge that the Mennonite Brethren churches free and
affirm women for ministries in the church, at home and
abroad, e.g., decision-making (committees and boards),
evangelizing (visitation and discipling), teaching (Bible
study and preaching), pastoral counseling (shepherding
and soul care). We affirm women as associate pastors or
"leading elders." (We recognize that the ordination of
women in ministry is an issue that is not addressed in
this statement. It is not addressed because ordination is
an issue in the Mennonite Brethren Church for many men
as well as women. Therefore BORAC will address the
question of ordination in the future).

We acknowledge that the evangelical church, worldwide,
is in transition in its understanding of the scope of min-
istries of women in the church and world. Many evangel-
icals believe that neither 1 Cor. 14:34, 35 nor 1 Tim. 2:11-
15 "rules out the ordination of women as preachers, teach-
ers or leaders in the church" ( Christianity Today , October
3, 1986). Other evangelicals believe these texts are more
restrictive. Mennonite Brethren people also differ in their
interpretation of these texts. We recognize that significant
exegetical issues are involved in these alternatives.
Therefore BORAC recommends a careful biblical study
process by our congregations on the role and ministry of
women in the church, and has commissioned the prepara-
tion of a book and study guide of all relevant biblical
passages.

The resolution was historic. It affirmed the full hu-
manity, salvation, gifledness and calling of women to

WHY THIS BOOK? 7

ministry. The implications were debated. The points at
issue were the reference to preaching, the affirmation of
the associate pastoral role, and the positive reference to
ordination by Christianity Today. The resolution was
approved with the following revision of the last two
paragraphs:

We encourage our churches to free and affirm women for
ministries in the church, at home and abroad, in decision-
making, evangelizing, teaching, counseling, encour-
agement, music, youth, visitations, etc.

BORAC recommends a careful biblical study process by
our congregations on the role and ministry of women in
the church, and has commissioned the preparation of a
book and study guide of all relevant biblical passages.

This book is the result of the BORAC mandate. It is
a function of a search for better understanding of the
role and ministry of women in the church.

Between the 1987 Conference resolution and the
publication of this book, the Mennonite Brethren
Church studied the issue in another study conference
held at Normal, Illinois, in 1989. Tim Geddert, a semi-
nary professor, argued that the conference should affirm
diversity by freeing individual churches to shape their
own exegetical conclusions and practices. Ed Boschman,
a pastor, made the case for a return to the pre-1981
stance of no women in public church leadership [see
Direction, 18 (1989)].

As illustrated above, the search for understanding is
characterized by disagreement. The point of the dis-
agreement is the interpretation of the Bible, specifically
the so-called "restrictive" texts. Since 1973 the Bible
teachers at the Mennonite Brethren Bible College
(Winnipeg) and the Mennonite Brethren Biblical

8 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Seminary (Fresno) have consistently offered affirmative
interpretations of the biblical teachings as a whole and
of the "restrictive* texts in particular (see Guenther and
Swartz in 1973, David Ewert in 1974 and 1980, Howard
Loewen in 1977, John E. Toews in 1980 and 1988,
George Koxirad in 1982). But in many local churches
and in conference discussions a significant number of
pastors have insisted on traditional interpretations (see
the Boschman article as a typical case study). The teach-
ers and pastors in the church disagree. Many lay people
are confused; some are getting angry at the divisiveness
such disagreement among church leaders sows in the
church.

Pain

The church is searching for new and clearer under-
standing because many women are crying out for heal-
ing from the pain of rejection and exclusion from min-
istry. They are profoundly aware of their spiritual
giftedness. They report clear calls to church ministry.
They hear a "yes" from God, but a "no* from the church.
The contradiction between their experience with God
and their experience in the church is intense. More and
more women are speaking of their pain and anger. Five
stories told in Mennonite Brethren churches illustrate
the pain.

A few years ago I visited with a young woman from a
prominent Mennonite Brethren family. She graduated
magna cum laude from one of the most prestigious uni-
versities in North America. Her parents and some
friends in the church were encouraging her to consider
the ministry. When I asked her how she was responding
to this encouragement, she told me that it was not an
option for her because of the church's stance on women

WHY THIS BOOK? 9

in ministry. "I can go anywhere I want in the world,"
she replied, "and I will not wait for the church to catch
up on this issue."

Another very intelligent young Mennonite Brethren
woman requested an appointment with me. She wanted
to talk about the proposition "that she could not be a
Christian and a woman." When I asked her to explain,
she argued on the basis of 1 Timothy 2 that a woman
cannot really be saved. If women are excluded from the
ministry, she asserted, because of Eve's participation in
the fall, but men are not despite Adam's participation in
the fall, what that really means is that men can be fully
saved but women cannot. And if she could not be fully
saved because she was a woman, then she did not want
to be a Christian. "To be a Christian and a woman" is
contradictory, she said over and over again. She found
nothing I said reassuring.

Another woman was converted at mid-life from pa-
ganism. Sometime thereafter she heard "a still small
voice" calling her to the ministry. She resisted for sever-
al years because she knew the stance of the church. The
sense of call persisted and after much struggle she yield-
ed. She experienced a profound peace in her life. She
completed seminary and serves in a church. Her church
affirms her gifts for ministry, but she continues to strug-
gle. "It is not an easy choice for a woman to make," she
said with a great deal of pain, "because it means going
against the expectation of women."

A young woman was converted through the ministry
of a new, urban Mennonite Brethren church. She grew
rapidly in the faith. Her local church began to affirm her
gifts and leadership. She felt a call to the ministry. With
the support of her church she entered seminary to train
for church ministry. She became aware for the first time
in seminary that her call to ministry was a problem in

10

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

the church. Suddenly she struggled because her call and
local church affirmation were out of step with the larger
church.

Another young woman grew up in a Mennonite
Brethren minister's home. Over time she became very
much involved in the church and in her father's min-
istry. She had no sense from her father or the church
that her involvement in ministry was a problem. In fact,
she experienced special support and affirmation from
the older people in the church. As an adult she sensed a
call to full-time church ministry. She entered seminary,
and graduated. But now she was a problem. She could
not find a place of ministry.

There are women in the church who live with enor-
mous, often unbearable pain because the church says
W to their gifts and calling from God. Some of these
women deal with the pain by leaving the church. Others
faithfully serve wherever they can while praying and
hoping for a clearer affirmation from the church. Still
others are training for the ministry to which they have
been called in the hope that the church will soon open
its doors to their desire and calling to serve.

These women are our daughters. We have birthed
and nurtured them in our families and our churches.
They are our daughters whom God has called to proph-
esy (Acts 2:17). They wonder if we will let them answer
the call of God. They cry in our homes and in our
churches because they hear more no's than yes's. They
also continue to live in hope that the biblical prophecy,
"your daughters will prophesy," will become a reality for
them.

But other women also feel pain. Women who have
chosen to stay home to raise their families, who have
chosen to work in traditional types of ministry such as

WHY THIS BOOK? 11

local women's missionary groups, Sunday school teach-
ing, relief sewing, and similar activities, often feel
slapped in the face by the clamor for women's greater in-
volvement in church ministries. Have their many years
of long and submissive service, joyfully given, been
worth nothing? They feel fulfilled. They have no desire
for anything more. They are using their gifts as they be-
lieve God wants them to, but now they feel pushed into
second-best status in God's kingdom. They also want an
end to their confusion.

Women are not the only ones suffering in the church.
When one member suffers, all suffer. I visited with a fa-
ther recently whose daughter has left the church be-
cause of the church's stance on women in ministry. His
pain is profound, his confusion without bounds. Why
does the church say "no" to his daughter? Why can his
daughter not be more patient with the church? Tears
rolled down his cheeks as we talked.

Husbands feel hurt by accusations that they aren't
allowing their wives to achieve a fulfilled life. They and
their wives feel pressured to accept interpretations of
Scripture alien to their view of life. They also know
pain.

A veteran church leader spoke to me recently about
his confusion. There was a time when he was clear on
the issue of women in ministry, he reported. But within
the last several months he had visited with several
women who spoke of their call to ministry. "Their call is
as clear as mine," he confided. "How can I say no to their
call? I am beginning to change my mind." And then he
added, "In ten years we will accept women into the min-
istry. If it will be okay in ten years, I want to know why
it is not all right today?"

12 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

During a visit with a pastor friend a few years ago
the question of women in ministry came up. He was
very troubled by any attempt to read the restrictive
texts as first-century and culture specific or to limit the
meaning of the texts, e.g., 1 Corinthians 14, to not ask-
ing questions, or 1 Timothy 2, to learning properly or to
unlearned women. I pulled my Greek New Testament
out of my briefcase and translated the texts very liter-
ally and carefully, trying to show him an alternative
way to understand these texts. Suddenly, in consid-
erable exasperation, he said, "That is not what my Bible
says. It says 'women should keep silent' and 'women
should not teach or have authority over men.'" Any oth-
er reading was due to liberalism and secular feminism,
he proclaimed. Even though we had been friends for
many years, he expressed real fear, even anger, that I
was becoming a theological liberal. Nothing I could say
would persuade him that I was still solidly evangelical.
Our trust relationship had been fractured. Relationship
is strained because we read the same Bible and the
same specific texts to say different things.

The pain women experience in the church is in-
creased by the discrepancy between words and actions.
Since 1974, conference resolutions have exhorted the
churches and conferences to affirm women for church
and conference ministries, but women experience more
resistance and hostility than affirmation. In 1984, wom-
en represented only 8.6% of the membership of General
Conference boards, compared to 32.5% in the General
Conference of Mennonites and 35.6% in the Mennonite
Church. The 1984 resolution specifically encouraged
churches to utilize seminary-trained women in ministry.
An increasing number of women are graduating from
seminaries, but few find openness to ministry in the
church.

WHY THIS BOOK? 13

The Intent of This Book

The intent of this book is to stimulate Bible study
and discussion in local churches about the role of women
in church ministry. The book was mandated by BORAC
to address these issues. BORAC asked John E. Toews, a
member of the board, Valerie Rempel and Katie Funk
Wiebe to edit a book that would call upon a group of
teachers in the church, both men and women, to study
the critical biblical texts involved in the discussion of
women in church ministry. BORAC reviewed a draft of
the book in 1989, and recommended some significant
changes. It reviewed the final draft in 1990 and rec-
ommended its publication as a study guide in the
churches.

The book is primarily a Bible study. Nine of the thir-
teen chapters study biblical texts.

The focus is Bible study because the issue in the
church is defined as one of biblical interpretation.
Mennonite Brethren, with other evangelicals, believe
the Bible is the sole and ultimate authority for ques-
tions of belief and practice. A former consensus about
how to interpret the Bible has broken down. Alternative
interpretations exist. The struggle in the church is over
how to understand the Bible correctly in the midst of
changes in society and in the context of diverse inter-
pretations of biblical texts.

The book begins with two general studies. The first
is a shortened version of David Ewert's 1980 Study
Conference paper. The second study, written by Elmer
Martens, makes the case for a permanent "creation or-
der" that frees women for ministry within the context of
overall male leadership.

The other eight biblical chapters study the specific
texts central to the discussion in the church. Two chap-

14 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

ters on Old Testament texts suggest a stronger empha-
sis on equality than Martens sees. The New Testament
studies consistently affirm women for ministry among
the people of God. The restrictive texts are reviewed
with special care, and fresh interpretations are proposed
that will need to be tested in the church. All writers af-
firm the general direction of Ewert's paper, and cau-
tiously challenge the significance of the creation order in
the New Testament.

The clear message of the book is that one can accept
the full authority of the Bible and read it carefully and
seriously as affirming women for ministry in the church
either within the context of overall male leadership or
independent of male leadership. That message will pro-
voke more discussion, perhaps even disagreement, in
the church. It is presented by the editors and writers
with the hope and the prayer that the church's under-
standing of the Bible will be deepened and enlarged
through study and that all the gifts of the Spirit will be
freed for ministry in the body of Christ.

Alternative interpretations are identified in the
book. The most accessible of these interpretations are
listed below.

MAJOR MENNONITE BRETHREN WRITINGS

Boschman, Ed. "Women's Role in Ministry in the Church."
Direction 18 (1989): 44-53.

Ewert, David. "The Christian Woman in the Church and
Conference." Yearbook of the Canadian Conference of
Mennonite Brethren Churches, 63rd Convention, July 6-9,
1974: 30-43.

WHY THIS BOOK? 15

. "The Place of Woman in the Church." Unpublished

Paper, Board of Reference and Counsel Study Conference,
Clearbrook, B.C., 1980.

Geddert, Timothy. "The Ministry of Women: A Proposal for
Mennonite Brethren." Direction 18 (1989): 54-71.

Guenther, Allen, and Herb Swartz. "The Role of Women in
the Church." Mennonite Brethren Herald 12 (4 May
1973): 4-9.

Konrad, George. "In the Image of God." Christian Leader 45
(2 November 1982): 6-9.

. "Joint Heirs in Christ." Christian Leader 45 (16

November 1982): 5-7.

. "Partners in Ministry." Christian Leader 45 (30

November 1982): 2-4.

Loewen, Howard. "The Pauline View of Woman." Direction 6
(October 1977): 3-20.

Swartz, Herb. "Women and the Church." The Bible and the
Church. Essays in Honour of David Ewert . ed. A.J. Dueck,
H.J. Giesbrecht, V.G. Shillington. Kindred Press, 1988.
95-110.

Toews, John E. "The Role of Women in the Church: The
Pauline Perspective." Direction 9 (January 1980): 25-35.

. "Women in Church Leadership." The Bible and the

Church. Essavs in Honour of David Ewert ed. A. J. Dueck,
H.J. Giesbrecht, V.G. Shillington. Kindred Press, 1988.
75-93.

16 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

MAJOR EVANGELICAL LITERATURE

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . Baker, 1985.

Clark, Stephen B. Man and Woman in Christ . Servant Books,
1980.

Evans, Mary J. Woman in the Bible . InterVarsity, 1983.

Foh, Susan. Women and the Word of God . Baker, 1979.

Hurley, James B. Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective .
Zondervan, 1981.

Michelson, Alvera, ed. Women, Authority and the Bible.
InterVarsity, 1986.

Piper, John and Wayne Gruden, eds., Recovering Biblical
Manhood and Womanhood . Crossway Books, 1991.

Swartley, Willard M. Slavery. Sabbath. War and Women .
Herald Press, 1983.

MEMBERS BY GRACE [ ]

2

David Ewert

They Labored in the Gospel

Disagreements concerning the ministry of women in
the church are not resolved by simply affirming the au-
thority of the word of God. It is rather a question of how
one interprets the Scriptures.

The question, in this particular case, is complicated
by the fact that the apostolic writers seem to move in
two directions. There are, on the one hand, those pas-
sages which stress the freedom which Christian women
have in Christ. On the other hand, we have several pas-
sages that seem to put restrictions on the kind of min-
istry women can perform in the congregation.

L NEW FREEDOM IN CHRIST

The text that most succinctly expresses the equality
of male and female in Christ is Galatians 3:28: "There is

1 This chapter is an edited version of the 1980 Board of Reference and
Counsel Study Conference paper.

18 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female,
for you are all one in Christ Jesus." In the context Paul
is discussing the condition for full inclusion in the
Abrahamic covenant (v. 29). The one condition is jus-
tification by faith (expressed in baptism, v. 27).

This passage does not deny sexual differences be-
tween male and female any more than it denies ethnic
distinctions (Jew and Greek) or socio-economic evils
(slave and free). In Christ, however, these distinctions
are transcended. There is something strikingly new
here, for in earlier times women were members of the
covenant by virtue of men; in the church women are
members by grace on the basis of faith.

Peter joins Paul in giving Christian women a new
place in Christ when he counsels husbands to give their
wives honor "as heirs with you of the gracious gift of
life" (1 Pet. 3:7). Whereas the physical differences re-
main, spiritually a woman shares equally with her hus-
band in the grace of God and in his gift of eternal life.

Women were the first witnesses of the resurrection
(Mk. 16:1-8). They were among the 120 who experienced
the coming of the Spirit and the birth of the church
(Acts 1:14). There were many converts from among
women in Jerusalem (Acts 5:14), in Samaria (Acts 8:12),
and in the Gentile world. Mary, the mother of Mark, put
her house at the disposal of the early church (Acts
12:12).

When Paul and his associates brought the gospel to
Europe, it began with the conversion of Lydia (Acts
16:13ff.). Her household became a base for further op-
erations. At Thessalonica a great many "leading women"
became charter members of the church (Acts 17:4). Luke
notes that an Athenian woman heard Paul's Areopagus
address and believed the Gospel. Evidently she was an

MEMBERS BY GRACE 1 9

outstanding woman, for she is mentioned by name
(Damaris, Acts 17:34).

In Corinth Paul encountered a Jewish couple,
Priscilla and Aquila, who became his coworkers in the
Gospel (Acts 18:3). When Paul left for Syria, the couple
went to Ephesus and became the spiritual mentors to
Apollos (Acts 18:26). Later this couple moved back to
Rome where a church met in their house. Paul greets
"Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus,"
in Romans (16:3, 4) and again in 2 Timothy (4:19). In
the six references to this outstanding Christian couple,
Priscilla's name stands first four times. Some later
scribes caught the significance of this order, and re-
versed it, for it seemed improper to have Aquila's name
after his wife's. Was Priscilla more gifted than her hus-
band? Did she come from a higher social class? We do
not know, but it is possible that she took the lead when
Apollos was instructed in the faith.

Although it is difficult to define what "prophecy"
means in every instance in the New Testament, the
evangelist Philip's four daughters had the gift of proph-
ecy (Acts 21:9). Some form of ministry is implied.

No one reading the Book of Acts could come to the
conclusion that the early church was led by women. On
the other hand, it is also clear that they played a vital
role in the life of the church from the beginning. The
fact that Paul persecuted not only men but also women
(Acts 9:2) shows what a force they were in the expansion
of the Christian faith. Paul says explicitly that women
helped him in his labors. For example, he mentions
Euodia and Syntyche as those who "contended at my
side in the cause of the gospel, along with Clement and
the rest of my fellow workers..." (Phil. 4:3).

20 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Perhaps nowhere is Paul's appreciation for the work
of Christian women seen as clearly as in Romans 16. Of
26 persons mentioned, nine or ten are women. The list
starts with Phoebe, who, it seems, was entrusted with
the letter to the Romans. She is called diakonos, which
probably means "deaconess" (this is possibly the mean-
ing in 1 Tim. 3:11 also, i.e., "women-deacons" rather
than "wives of deacons"). Paul recommends her to the
Roman church as a saint who had helped him and many
others (w. 1, 2). Of Prisca and Aquila he says that these
fellow-workers "risked their lives for me" (v. 4), and
among the friends whom he greets is Mary (v. 6), "who
worked very hard for you" (i.e., the Roman church).

Scholars wish we knew more about Junia (Julia) and
Andronicus (v. 7), but it is impossible to decide whether
the name Junia (Julia) is feminine or masculine. If fem-
inine then we have a staggering word of praise applied
to her: "outstanding among the apostles." (Chrysostom
in the fourth century wrote: "Oh! how great is the de-
votion of this woman, that she should be counted worthy
of the appellation of apostle .") Two other women,
Tryphaena and Tryphosa (v. 12), are also given hon-
orable mention as "those who work hard in the Lord."
Philologus and Julia were possibly a husband-wife team
(v. 15). Paul also singles out Nereus and his sister for
Christian greeting (v. 15).

There is no doubt that the mission of the early
church was greatly strengthened by the contributions of
Christian women. The question of how they actually
functioned in the Christian assemblies is not as clear. In
1 Corinthians 11:5 women pray and prophesy in public,
observing, of course, the rules of propriety in the matter
of dress — which in Paul's day meant wearing the cus-
tomary headcovering.

MEMBERS BY GRACE 2 1

There are, however, two passages in which Paul
seems to limit Christian women in what they may do in
the Christian assembly.

II. APPARENT RESTRICTIONS IN MINISTRY

1. 1 Corinthians 14:34-36. "Women should remain
silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak,
but must be in submission, as the Law says. If they
want to inquire about something, they should ask their
own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman
to speak in the church."

Let me mention some ways in which interpreters
have tried to harmonize this passage with 1 Corinthians
11, where women are seen as participating both in the
mission of the church and in the church's worship.

a. Since this passage appears after verse 40 in some
manuscripts and appears to disrupt the flow of Paul's
thought on tongues and prophecy, some say this passage
is an insertion and is un-Pauline. While that is highly
doubtful, that explanation would still not relieve the
problem. Even if this passage had come from the pen of
another apostolic writer, we would still be faced with
the meaning of what is written.

b. Another view is that Chapter 11 has in mind the
worship of the church, which was open to outsiders,
whereas Chapter 14 describes a membership meeting.
Another form of this view is that Chapter 11 describes
the worship experience of believers only, at which
Christian women had the freedom to pray and prophesy,
while 1 Corinthians 14 describes a meeting at which un-
believers might also be present. In such meetings wom-
en should be silent to avoid offending others.

22 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

c. Another way out of the dilemma is to argue that
Paul mentions the praying and prophesying of women
(Ch. 11), but does not condone it. However, since he con-
demns inappropriate attire, one would expect him to
censure women for praying and prophesying, if he ob-
jected to such activity.

d. "Pray and prophesy" in Chapter 11 means, so it is
argued, to participate in worship and to receive all the
blessings of worship but not actually that women who
participated in worship prayed and prophesied them-
selves. That, however, seems contrary to Paul's assump-
tion that they did pray and prophesy.

e. Michael Green is of the opinion that the "speak-
ing" which is forbidden in Chapter 14 is speaking in
tongues, since the entire chapter deals with that topic
( Called to Serve , p. 56).

f. Krister Stendahl holds that "the context (v. 35)
makes it clear that the silence here stands in contrast to
'asking questions' not to preaching, teaching or proph-
esying. That being so, there is no tension between this
passage and the clear reference in Chapter 11 to the fact
that women may prophesy." Paul forbids disruptive
questioning in church and advises women to ask their
husbands at home. Perhaps they were questioning the
message of Christian prophets, assuming too much
authority.

g. Another approach is to see in this passage a fail-
ure on Pauls part to bring his practice into line with his
theory. However, to accuse Paul of a lapse at this point
would get us into serious trouble, for then we could get
rid of Paul whenever he did not agree with us, or vice
versa. A more sensible approach (if one follows this line
of thought) is to recognize that in the first generation
Paul could not force the church to break longstanding

MEMBERS BY GRACE 23

cultural patterns. Just as he could not overcome slavery
in his day (while holding to the freedom of the slave in
Christ), so he could not allow woman to go farther than
society would allow, if the church was not to come into
complete disrepute.

I think it is obvious that Paxil did not mean the com-
mand for silence to be understood in the absolute sense,
otherwise women could not have participated in song,
prayer, and confessions of faith. The reminder to be sub-
missive may suggest that some women did not know
how to handle their newly-found liberties and were as-
suming what was generally held to be a man's pre-
rogative, namely, leadership. Paul seems to have the
creation account in mind when he counsels sub-
mission — "as the Law says" — suggesting that the new
order of redemption has not done away with the order of
creation. Some scholars take this reference to the law to
be an allusion to Genesis 3:16, where the husband's rule
over the wife is mentioned. F.F. Bruce, however, thinks
it is rather a reference to the creation account. Of
course, Genesis 3:16 stands in the context of the curse,
and it is somewhat hard to see why Paul would refer to
the curse as a binding arrangement.

Paul clearly wants women to be informed on matters
of faith. "If they want to inquire about something, they
should ask their own husbands at home." We tend to be
offended by this stricture, and overlook how revolu-
tionary the passage actually was. Whereas the rabbis
thought that to teach women the Torah was like teach-
ing them to sin, Paul wants women to learn.

Leon Morris (in a public lecture) pointed out that in
both the restrictive passages (1 Cor. 14 and 1 Tim. 2)
Paul mentions the "learning" of women. Implied, Morris
suggests, is that, once they have learned, they will also

24 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

be permitted greater freedom and fuller participation in
public worship. It would then be wrong to universalize
and to "freeze" the command to silence for all times. By
implication, we could say that once she had learned, and
once she found herself in a situation where it was not
considered improper for a woman to speak in public, she
might well be asked to do so.

2. 1 Timothy 2:11-12. "A woman should learn in
quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman
to teach or have authority over a man; she must be si-
lent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam
was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was de-
ceived and became a sinner."

In a day when women did not teach elsewhere in
public, it would have been out of character if Paul had
thrown open the doors and encouraged women to be-
come leaders in the church. Moreover, the heretical
teachings which Paul combats in this letter may have
been furthered by untaught women who had, by virtue
of their gifts, taken leadership in teaching. Some inter-
preters infer from this that once women have learned
they may teach, but for the moment Paul wants them to
desist.

Learning in quietness probably meant that women
should not raise objections to what was taught.
Speaking and "silence" are not mutually exclusive. For
example, when Peter reported on his fellowship with
Gentiles (Acts 11), the Jewish brothers became "quiet"
and "praised God." Did they praise God in silence?
Hardly! But they did not object to Peter's fellowship
with the Gentiles. Or, take Acts 21:14, where the dis-
ciples at Caesarea tried to dissuade Paul from going to
Jerusalem. When they couldn't, they were "quiet" and
"said": "The will of the Lord be done." Clearly, to be

MEMBERS BY GRACE 25

quiet does not mean that they said nothing, but rather
it means they did not object. This would be in line with
1 Corinthians 14 where constant interruption with ques-
tions or even objections would cause confusion in
worship.

In 1 Timothy 2 "silence" probably means the op-
posite of lording it over husbands. Indeed quietness here
is linked with submission — the kind that is expected of
all church members (Eph. 5:20) and even of male proph-
ets who speak (1 Cor. 14:30). Certainly Paul does not
mean that women are not to be heard in church, but
rather they are not to wrangle and argue.

Verse 12, however, states clearly that it is in-
appropriate for a woman to teach or to lord it over a
man; she is to be "in quietness," i.e., in submission.

That he did not forbid women to teach altogether is
clear: Priscilla taught Apollos (Acts 18:13, 24-26);
Euodia and Syntyche labored side by side with Paul in
the gospel, and we take that to mean that they did more
than prepare food and wash clothes (Phil. 4:2ff.). Paul,
of course, wants women to teach their children (2 Tim.
1:5; 3:15) — how, otherwise, would Timothy have known
the Scriptures from childhood? Older women are urged
to teach younger women (Tit. 2:3-5). If they participated
in prayer and prophecy when the church gathered (1
Cor. 11), they exercised some kind of teaching function.

Clearly, then, the prohibition forbidding women to
teach is not to be made absolute, for it was not made ab-
solute in New Testament times. Nor have we made it
absolute in the twentieth century, for we have never
thought it inappropriate for women serving as mis-
sionaries to instruct future male pastors of mission
churches.

26 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Some see the way out of the dilemma by dis-
tinguishing between two kinds of teaching in the early
church: instruction, exhortation, proclamation (in which
women might participate), and authoritative, dis-
ciplinary, perhaps doctrinal teaching (in which they
should not take part). However, such a distinction is
hard to make on the basis of the New Testament.

Others see the restriction as limited to leadership
functions. Perhaps "to teach" and authenteo ("to act out
of oneself and then to act autocratically, or to interrupt)
are used in parallel fashion here. By implication, a wom-
an may well instruct the congregation, if it is done un-
der the leadership of a man.

Again, others insist on universalizing and "freezing*
this prohibition without taking into account the situa-
tion in which these instructions were given. The ascetic
emphasis in Gnosticism, an early Christian heresy
which distinguished body and spirit, may have led to a
disparagement of family life, marriage, and childbirth
on the part of some women who insisted on playing a
leading role in the teaching ministry of the church (per-
haps v. 15 suggests that). We may have a situation in
Ephesus such as is reflected in the letter to Thyatira
(Rev. 2:18ff.): "I have this against you: You tolerate the
woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. By her
teaching she misleads my servants into sexual immoral-
ity and the eating of food sacrificed to idols." This would
be the libertine wing of Gnosticism.

Donald Guthrie suggests that the prohibition may
have been due to the greater facility with which con-
temporary women were falling under the influence of
impostors. And that may be instructive when we look at
Paxil's rationale for the prohibition. "And Adam was not
deceived but the woman was thoroughly deceived and

MEMBERS BY GRACE 27

fell into transgression," Several interpretations have
been suggested. First, we may detect the Gnostic ten-
dency to despise marriage and family in the interest of
greater holiness and openness to God. Paul may be
warning such women that just as Eve, when she was
alone, was approached by the Tempter and fell into sin,
they better watch themselves. That there were such de-
ceivers who forbade marriage can be seen from 1
Timothy 4:3. Another interpretation says that Paul
counsels against giving women positions of authority in
the church because they are by nature more perceptive
and responsive and so in greater danger of being led
astray. A third interpretation is that since Eve tried to
lead once and created chaos for humanity, her pun-
ishment for all times is that she may not lead. This is
problematic, if for no other reason than that elsewhere
in the New Testament Adam stands at the head of the
sinful race. Moreover, it would mean that Paul's in-
structions regarding women in the church were de-
termined not by what has happened in Christ, but by
what has happened in sin. The very next verse reminds
us that women, too, experience Christ's salvation. A
fourth possibility is to say with Paul Jewett that Paul's
argument reflects a leftover of his rabbinic thinking, but
it will hardly do to say that Paul is in error at those
points where we cannot harmonize him with other pas-
sages or with current sentiments.

in. TOWARD A POSSIBLE SOLUTION

Should Christian women be restricted in their use of
spiritual gifts? Does the equality of men and women in
Christ refer to spiritual status only or also to function?
How are we to harmonize statements in Paul's writings

28 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

that seem to be contradictory? Since Paul's teachings
were given in particular historical and cultural situa-
tions, are they all equally and permanently binding for
every conceivable historical or cultural situation? What
happens when the gospel takes root in a matriarchal so-
ciety? If Paul was concerned about the deportment of
women in the congregation in order to insure the rep-
utation of the church in the community, how does the
church express this concern today in a society which
might interpret the church's traditional stance as a form
of repression? What about single women in the church,
to whom the texts which speak of the marriage re-
lationship hardly apply directly? Or do they?

These and other questions beg for answers, but the
answers are hard to come by. Quoting chapter and verse
often means selecting a particular chapter and verse
which best expresses our feelings on the matter and ei-
ther overlooking passages which point in the opposite
direction, or subordinating such passages to our pre-
ferred texts.

We know that churches are coming to different con-
clusions on this matter. Some take the restrictive pas-
sages to be a kind of "hangover" of Paul's patriarchal
mentality and therefore not a word of God for all times.
This is, I think, a wrongheaded approach to Scripture.
By contrast, some universalize, make absolute the com-
mands of Paul for the silence of women in the congrega-
tion. This approach is hard to harmonize with the New
Testament as a whole. It overlooks the fact that Paul
was seeking to curb excesses and pays no attention to
the cultural setting of the New Testament.

Others hold firmly to these passages as a divinely in-
spired word of God but a word which came in a given
cultural form. Once the form changes, the word must be

MEMBERS BY GRACE 29

applied in new ways. The danger in this approach is
that we not only apply the truth to a different situation
but do away with the truth altogether. Then there are
those who hold that the restrictive passages are in line
with God's creation order in which man's headship is es-
tablished. Redemption affects the tragic consequences of
sin but does not undo the relationship of man and wom-
an established by the Creator. In practice this might ex-
press itself in one of several ways: either a woman
should not teach at all when men are present; or she
may teach as long as a man leads; or she may not teach
if she is married but may if she is single; or she may
teach but may not assume the pastoral leadership of the
church.

It is clear that Christian women share in all the
blessings of Gods redeeming grace as Christian men do.
It would also be difficult to show from Scripture that
women are less endowed with gifts of the Spirit (cha-
rismata) than men. That by itself does not settle the
question, of course, because relatively few men exercise
their gifts in the worship services of the church. Gifts
are given for service, and the services of the church
members are largely done in the world. The church
gathers only to be strengthened for its services during
the week.

It is my understanding that Paul's command for
women to be silent in the church's assemblies must be
understood, in part, in the light of the status of woman-
hood in his society. Had the apostle not taken the feel-
ings and prejudices of the contemporary patriarchal
world into account, there would have been utter chaos.
This means that where cultural patterns differ, Paul's
strictures must also be modified. Women no longer wear
Near-Eastern kerchiefs to church, and yet presumably

30

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

they confess to be in harmony with 1 Corinthians 11,
since in our society women do not need to have a head-
covering to be appropriately dressed.

Slavery was an evil institution, yet Paul did not cru-
sade against it, for to do so would have meant defeat
and utter chaos. But that did not mean that he con-
doned the status quo (as Gal. 3:28 indicates). Similarly,
some of the things Paul has to say about women in the
church are an accommodation to people's feelings about
their status at the time. This does not mean that Paul
condoned what Jewish and pagan culture had done to
them. And just as Christianity planted seeds that
would lead to the abolition of slavery, so it also restored
womanhood to true dignity.

We should be careful, then, not to make absolute
prohibitions which were designed to curb excesses in lo-
cal situations about which we are not sufficiently in-
formed — particularly in light of the fact that there are
passages which seem to point in the opposite direction.

It would appear to me, after considering the various
options, that we should encourage women to participate
actively at the various levels of church, mission, and de-
nominational activity. However, given the fact that the
apostles put some restrictions on women, we should
leave the leadership of churches in the hands of men
who have been equipped by God and are called by the
congregation for this ministry.

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 5

Elmer A. Martens

The Importance of Creation Order

Adam: "Sole Eve, associate sole, to me beyond

Compare above all living creatures dear!

Well hast thou motioned, well thy thoughts employed

How we might best fulfill the work which here

God hath assigned us, nor of me shalt pass

Unpraised; for nothing lovelier can be found

In a woman than to study household good,

And good works in her husband to promote.

Yet not so strictly hath our Lord imposed

Labor as to debar us when we need

Refreshment, whether food or talk between,

Food of the mind, or this sweet intercourse

Of looks and smiles ... — John Milton, Paradise Lost

The critical issue in the biblical interpretation of
women in church ministry is the starting point.
Anabaptists give major weight to Jesus and the gospels.
The departure point for the discussion about women and

32 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

men in ministry must be Jesus' practice and teaching.
His teaching harked back to the creation order.

Jesus broke with the customs of his day, which re-
garded women as second-class citizens or worse (Mk.
7:24-30; Jn. 4; Matt. 27:55-56; Lk. 10:38-42; Jn. 20:1-18).
It follows that the depreciation of women relatively com-
mon in some church and family circles is contrary to the
model set by Jesus. Men in leadership have ample rea-
son to apologize to the women in our churches for at-
titudes and actions not in the spirit of Christ.

Jesus' practice must be balanced with his teaching.
A striking feature of that teaching was his stress on the
creation pattern as normative. When the opponents
query Jesus about divorce, Jesus quickly makes clear
that, while he acknowledges the Mosaic teaching on di-
vorce, the intended pattern was set in Eden: one hus-
band, one wife (Matt. 19:1-12). Paul, like Jesus, grounds
his position in the creation (1 Cor. 11:8; 1 Tim. 2:13). It
is only reasonable then, when seeking light on the ques-
tion of men, women and ministry, that attention be giv-
en to the opening chapters of Genesis.

THE ORDERING AT CREATION

Ordering is a chief concern of Genesis 1 — 2. The ar-
rangement of the acts of creation in six days presents a
carefully laid-out sequence. The celestial bodies of sun
and moon were set in place in order to rule over day and
night; human beings were to rule over the earth. The
great sin reported in Genesis 3 is that human beings
were taken in by the tempter who promised them that
by eating of the tree human beings could be like God.
Eve succumbed to the temptation and trespassed the ap-
pointed order.

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 33

The first and highly significant statement made
about men and women is "and God created man in his
own image, in the image of God he created him; male
and female he created them" (Gen. 1:27). The initial
word is a word about equality. Both women and men are
created in God's image. There is no hint here of super-
iority or inferiority. While the gender distinction is not-
ed, each has identical dignity. Humans are not, as in the
ancient Near-East myths, slaves of the gods, but beings
who are "a little lower than God" (Ps. 8:5). In whatever
way that "image" is to be understood, there is no argu-
ment that both women and men share worth and dig-
nity equally.

They share equally also in another respect. God
gives both man and woman the command to have do-
minion over the earth and to rule over it: "And God
blessed them; and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and
multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it . . (Gen.
1:28). So Genesis 1 places women equal with men as to
position before God, and equal with men in environ-
mental stewardship.

The so-called second creation account (Gen. 2:4b-24)
speaks again to the question of environment and also
addresses the man/woman relationship. How these two
accounts of creation are to be understood has received
different answers. One view is that they stem from dif-
ferent sources and have been combined. A more likely
view is that the first (1:1 — 2:3) is general; the second,
particular. The move is from the cosmos to the garden.
In the second account, humanity (not botany or astrol-
ogy) is selected for further treatment. Just as in the first
account there was mention of humankind in relation to
God, humankind in relation to each other, and hu-
mankind in relation to the environment, so each of these

34 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

themes now appears in the second account, with the
elaboration of certain details and qualifications.

Each of the three relationships is further defined
(and limited). As to the relationship between God and
humankind, we hear of a new factor: obedience.
Moreover, we hear a new note about the environment.
While in the first account, God expressly stated that
"every plant . . . and every tree which has fruit . . . shall
be food for you" (Gen. 1:29), that mandate is now cur-
tailed: they are not to eat the fruit from one tree (2:16-
17). These two examples introduce other qualifications
to the first account. We should be prepared for some re-
finement also in elaboration of the man/woman re-
lationships. The account of the beginning of the family
is given in the second half of the second creation account
(2:18-24). Five observations/conclusions can be made
from that treatment of man and woman.

First, man is given a lead responsibility for the en-
vironment. In Genesis 2 the subject of the environment
is discussed solely in terms of Adam. Eve has not yet
been formed. The garden is planted, and then "God took
the man and put him into the garden of Eden to cul-
tivate it and keep it" (Gen. 2:15). From the first account
of creation we understand that the custody of the en-
vironment is a joint custody. But in the second account
the responsibility is handed to the man in particular.
Confirmation of such a conclusion comes from the Lord's
word to Adam after the fall. The Lord tells Adam that
the ground is cursed and that in toil shall he wrest food
from the earth, for "both thorns and thistles it shall
grow for you" (2:19). To Adam, more than to Eve, is the
connection with the stewardship of the environment
made. While the woman cannot escape responsibility for

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 35

the environment, the man is responsible for "cultivating
and keeping" the earth more particularly.

A second observation follows. In the story, the com-
mand to refrain from eating from the designated tree is
given to the man even before the woman is formed
(2:16). He is responsible for obedience. When Eve trans-
gresses, with Adam close behind, the text notes that
both hide themselves (3:11). In the story, God calls for
the man, "Where are you?" (3:9). When Adam explains
his fear and the reason for hiding, God addresses the
man, "Who told you that you were naked? Have you eat-
en from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?"
(2:11). Only later in the conversation does God address
himself to the woman. God fixes responsibility in Eden
first on the man. The story makes clear that both are re-
sponsible, and both bear the consequences of their deed,
but God gives the man primary responsibility.

Thirdly, the lead role for Adam is indicated by his
task to assign names. The point of the passage is that
by assigning names to the animals, Adam discerned dis-
tinctions among them, and in the process it became
clear that no suitable helper for Adam was to be found
among the animal species. A subsidiary point would not
be missed by the Hebrews, for the responsibility of nam-
ing was held by someone with authority (Gen. 1:5, 8, 10;
17:5; 32:28; 2 Ki. 24:17). To name someone was in-
dicative of authority.

In that garden setting, when the person formed by
God was brought to him, Adam exclaimed, "She shall be
called Woman, because she was taken out of Man" (Gen.
2:23). The woman's name is Isshah because she was tak-
en from Ish (man). The joyous welcome accorded the
woman is a comment on her importance; the designation
of the name is in keeping with his position of lead
responsibility.

36 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

A fourth observation turns around the expression
"helper suitable for him* (2:18). As in English, so in
Hebrew, the word "helper" signifies someone who comes
along to assist. Some commentators have observed that
the word in the Hebrew is often used of God, and have
hinted that, using hierarchical language, this would
mean that Eve, in this case, was to be over the man in
importance. First, such a conclusion is quite out of keep-
ing with the tenor of the passage. In the narrative, not
so much as a statement or even any action is attributed
to her. More important is the observation that Eve's role
is in some way dependent upon Adam's. A woman writer
is blunt: "She is made to be a cooperator as he is made
to be an operator." To be sure God is a helper, but unlike
Eve, his identity is not derived in terms of another.

Further, the "helper" was to be a complementary
partner to Adam. The result of God's formative act of
making woman out of man, was, judging by Adam's ex-
clamation, totally satisfactory. Woman was indeed a
complementary partner to man. Woman, so the apostle
Paul asserts, was created for the sake of man (1 Cor.
11:9). Such a statement gives no license to chauvinists;
both men and women exist from God and for God. Men
have a primary responsibility; however, it is in view of
this responsibility that woman is called alongside.

And that introduces a fifth observation. Adam is
made first, then Eve. For moderns the order is de-
cidedly less important than it was for ancient Israel.
However, the laws of primogeniture, namely regulations
governing the privileges and responsibilities of the first-
born, were carefully honored. In the genealogies of
Genesis 5 the firstborn of each (except for Adam) is sin-
gled out and named.

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 37

Singular importance was given to the chronological
priority of birth. That Ishmael, by virtue of being first,
is entitled to the birthright is assumed. In an inter-
esting complication with twins, Zerah, the first to ap-
pear, in the end is the last to be born, yet it is under-
stood that Perez, the firstborn will be head of the clan
(Gen. 38:27-30; cf. Gen. 46:12; Ruth 4:12, 18). So when
Paul argues for male headship based on temporal prior-
ity ("For man does not originate from woman, but wom-
an from man," 1 Cor. 11:8), he is consistent with the in-
tention of the author of Genesis.

All five observations combined lead to the conclusion
that a role differentiation between man and woman is
imbedded in the creation order. The man has a lead
position. Significant in the argument for this contention
is Paul's emphasis on the man's temporal priority (cf. 1
Tim. 2:13). The man cannot abdicate responsibility,
even when it involves Eve. He has her for a helper; her
identity is dependent on his vocation. This under-
standing of levels of responsibility — an understanding
which cannot be detached from authority and account-
ability — has been the understanding for nearly two mil-
lennia of the church's teaching. If it needs correction,
one can at least understand on what basis a preferred
place was given to the man in the home and in the
church.

The creation account ordering leads to two asser-
tions. First, the conclusion, derived from the creation ac-
count in Genesis 1:1 — 2:3, is that man and woman are
equal as persons. Secondly, the creation account of
Genesis 2:4-24, while not subtracting in the least from
the first assertion, points to a role differentiation, giving
to the man a lead role. The two accounts must be taken
together, otherwise distortion results. Those who seize

38

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

on Genesis 2:4-24 to advocate male dominance over
women are in error. Those who quote the passage about
equality from Genesis 1 and fail to observe role dif-
ferentiation as outlined in Genesis 2 are also in error.
Indeed, the equality dimension is stressed first and last
in the two accounts, perhaps so that the role differentia-
tion found in the second account will not be overplayed.
Male and female are in the image of God (1:27). "This is
now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh" (Gen. 2:24),
says Adam. This "bracketing" of the material about
man and woman is instructive because it asserts, first,
the equality of the two; and given the story in Genesis 2,
also the role differentiation that is to mark the two.

The divinely-ordained arrangement is a delicate bal-
ance. Men and women are equal ontologically (as things
are in and of themselves), but God gave the man a pri-
mary responsibility. The roles of men and women are
differentiated. That balance was upset in the fall. The
differing roles now became a problem; there follows the
so-called "battle of the sexes." The outcome of Eve's
transgression was that the man would pervert his lead
position and become arbitrary, harsh, and sometimes
even tyrannical: "He shall rule over you" (Gen. 3:16).
Likewise the woman, instead of acknowledging the hus-
band's lead position, would seek to usurp his position:
"Your desire shall be for your husband" (Gen. 3:16). This
interpretation of "desire" as "desire to master" is de-
fended, as scholars have noted, from the subsequent
chapter where God addresses Cain, "Its [sin] desire is
for you, but you must master it" (Gen. 4:7). The en-
trance of sin into the human race means that the ap-
pointed ordering would be abused and challenged.

ADAM NAMED HER EVE

39

TESTING THE PATTERN OF ORDERING
IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

The remainder of the Old Testament concurs with
this kind of ordering — an ordering in which men and
women are equal in worth, but in which functions are
differentiated so that to men is given a lead role.

The strand of material in the Old Testament that as-
serts women's dignity is impressive. One can easily doc-
ument examples of women's involvement and lead-
ership. God makes a covenant with his people, men and
women (Deut. 29:1-11). Women pray to God directly
(Gen. 25:22-23) and minister before the Lord (Ex. 38:8).
Miriam is part of the leadership team together with
Aaron and Moses (Ex. 15:20-21); Deborah is a military
commander (Judg. 4-5); Huldah a prophetess (2 Ki.
22:14); and Esther a queen. Wisdom, said to be with God
at creation, is personified as a woman (Prov. 8). Such
texts dare not be muffled; they proclaim the dignity that
is accorded women. But to argue from these examples
for role interchangeability is to ignore other texts —
texts which are reminiscent of the creation ordering.

Old Testament texts that surface the lead position of
men are so frequent that the patriarchy model is a large
stumbling block to feminists. God's call is to Abram
(Gen. 12); when he obeys he takes Sarai with him. The
Torah stipulated that when women made vows, these
were under the jurisdiction of fathers and husbands
(Num. 30). However, for widows and divorced persons,
every vow "shall stand" (Num. 30:9). Further evidence of
the lead position of men is in the priesthood; there is no
record that women were priests. The teaching and of-
ficial cultic leadership function was denied them. A rea-
son is not given. For that matter priesthood re-

40 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

sponsibilities were denied to all but the Levitical tribe,
and even so only those over the age of thirty were el-
igible to be priests. It might be remembered that
Miriam, chafing (along with Aaron) at Moses 1 leadership
was not only rebuked but disciplined (Num. 12:9fF.). If
one listens carefully to the Old Testament on this ques-
tion of the role of women, one is impressed with the
great latitude extended to women, but, consistent with
Genesis 1 — 2, also with certain responsibilities deferred
to men.

TESTING THE PATTERN OF ORDERING
IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

Is the creation order which assigns a lead position to
men overturned in the New Testament? Some argue
that Christ's redemptive work effected a change in the
fundamental ordering. They cite Galatians 3:28: "There
is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free
man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all
one in Christ." In this passage which discusses the ben-
efits of salvation, Paul insists that the barriers of gen-
der and social class have tumbled down for those "in
Christ." Such a statement is reminiscent of Genesis 1:27
which insists that as persons, both men and women are
to be given full worth. To use this text as determinative
for roles in ministry, however, is unwarranted because
of the context. That question Paul addresses elsewhere.

In the early church the ministry of women was wide-
ranging, to be sure. Women were among the disciples in
the upper room (Acts 1:14). Lydia is mentioned (Acts
16:15), as are Philips daughters who prophesy (Acts
21:8). Priscilla, along with her husband, instructs
Apollos (Acts 18:26). Phoebe is listed as a servant-

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 41

minister (Rom, 16:1). In that same chapter Paul ac-
knowledges the services of several women. Those who
urge these instances as reasons for role inter-
changeability, neglect another strand of texts, the so-
called restrictive texts.

These "restrictive texts" cannot here be exegeted in
detail; sketchy comments must suffice. In 1 Corinthians
11 Paul addresses worship. He says, "Christ is the head
of every man, and the man is the head of a woman, and
God is the head of Christ" (v. 3). Debate continues as to
whether "head" signifies authority, and is therefore hier-
archical, or whether it can also mean source. Those who
have argued from Greek literature that "head" means
"source" are now being strongly challenged. The term
"head" is used for the source of a river, for example, but
also for its mouth. The conclusion is that head may also
mean "extremity." Though the word could mean
"source," it can hardly do so in this text for God is hard-
ly the source of Christ. But that there is a structure —
call it hierarchical — is the plain sense of the text.
Without qualification, it is allowed by all Christians
that "Christ is the head of every man" — the first state-
ment. Without qualification it is allowed by all believers
that "God is the head of Christ" — the third statement.
Why then is the in-between statement, "man is the head
of the woman," qualified and made to mean something
other than "hierarchical?"

The word "hierarchical" has by now a negative
meaning, no doubt because of the abuse by those who
have exercised authority irresponsibly. Another word
would be preferable. But the notion that in some sense
the man takes the lead (not towers above) is evident
from this text. Paul's teaching may not be reassuring ei-
ther for men or for women, but to wiggle around the

42 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

text, or worse, to ignore it or even force an opposite
meaning, is a procedure that cannot be condoned. To ac-
knowledge a gradation of responsibility would be in
keeping with the message of Genesis. Indeed in the
same chapter, Paul, following the method of our Lord
before him, appeals to the creation account. Paul argues
his case noting that "man does not originate from wom-
an, but woman from man" (1 Cor. 11:8).

Further insight into role differentiation comes from
the same letter: "Let the women keep silent in the
churches; for they are not permitted to speak, but let
them subject themselves just as the Law also says" (1
Cor. 14:34). Here Paul appeals to Scripture. To read this
text in the absolutist sense, however, as has been done
by some hard-liners, is to ignore Paul's instructions in
the same book for a woman who prays or prophesies (1
Cor. 11:5). Paul does not preclude the public ministry of
women, but he circumscribes that ministry —
corresponding with the creation ordering.

A similar explanation holds for the text in 1 Timothy
2. Paul instructs: "I do not allow a woman to teach or ex-
ercise authority over a man ..." (1 Tim. 2:12). Yet wom-
en are to teach children (2 Tim. 1:5), teach other women
(Tit. 2:3-4), and, in the case of Priscilla may on occasion
teach men (Acts 18:26). The instructions to Timothy,
some argue, pertain only to that situation in Ephesus
and are not to be universalized to apply to all
Christians. But that is questionable. Paul once more ap-
peals to the creation order: "For it was Adam who was
first created,and then Eve" (1 Tim. 2:13).

In summary, in Galatians Paul scores the point for
women's equality with men. Such a position accords
with Genesis 1. In 1 Corinthians 11 and 1 Timothy 2
Paul sets limitations for women in public ministry. Such

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 43

a position agrees with the creation account in Genesis 2.
There is a broad scope for ministry for women. However,
the conclusion is virtually inescapable that for Paul
some limitations are in effect.

Objections raised against this interpretation of the
man in lead position, revolve around two points: (1) gift-
edness, and (2) gender discrimination. It is argued, for
example, that it is irresponsible not to employ women's
gifts of leadership. A blunt reply is that as important as
women's gifts are, there are still parameters as to their
use. At issue is not the full deployment of gifts; at issue
is obedience to a divinely given pattern. Moreover it is
claimed that limitation of ministries for women is dis-
crimination according to gender and that this is un-
worthy of the gospel. In reply one should note that en-
try into the kingdom for everyone means coming under
the lordship of Christ and that submission to him as
Lord is a non-negotiable requirement. In principle, or-
dering curbs freedom, for it means that "not everything
goes."

It must be underlined that submission, as the Bible
envisages it, does not of itself imply inferiority. When,
for example, an employee defers to his or her employer,
the issue is not an issue of intrinsic worth; the issue is
acknowledgement of role distinctions. The clincher for
this line of reasoning is to point to Jesus, the Son of
God. The Christian teaching is that Jesus is God and
that both God and Jesus are equal in deity. Still, it is
said of our Lord that he put himself at the service of
God the Father, and submitted to his will. In essence,
the two are equal; in function, one is submissive to the
other. So also in the man/woman relationship both in
the family and in church.

44 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Does Christ reverse the results of the fall? Yes! As
Paul explains, a husband's love is to be for his wife; a
loving husband does not rule over his wife. Moreover, a
Christian wife displays a submissive attitude to her hus-
band. She is not about to usurp the role of her husband
(cf. Gen. 3:16). The disharmony identified at the fall
has been undone by Christ. Mutual submission is en-
joined, and yet the role distinctions are observed. The
creation order, which acknowledges levels of re-
sponsibility, remains. Otherwise, the statement that the
husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of
the church is a hollow paradigm. Carefully delineated
symbols in Scripture should not be confounded.

CONCLUSION

To hold that in the creation pattern man and woman
were accorded equal worth, but were assigned dif-
ferentiated levels of responsibility, is to make sense of
Pauls statements which, on the one hand, underscore
the equality of the sexes, but on the other hand, de-
lineate boundaries for roles. The practical application of
such a theology needs further attention as to detail, but
on the issue of women in ministry, the above exposition
would mean a broad exercise of gifts for all — men and
women. Clearly women, to whom dignity is to be ac-
corded, have broad avenues for public ministry. At the
same time it seems necessary that a respect for role dif-
ferentiation be maintained. One might envision, for ex-
ample, that women would preach, serve on boards, per-
haps be ordained (given an understanding of ordination
as affirmation, rather than entitlement to authority).
But officially designated leadership roles, such as that
of senior pastor, would be reserved for men. In what

ADAM NAMED HER EVE 45

way the details of the above position would be ex-
pressed, given current organizations, needs further at-
tention. The goal would be to express in a practical way,
both the equality taught in Genesis 1 and the role dif-
ferentiation noted in Genesis 2.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Clark, Stephen B. Men and Woman in Christ: An

Examination of the Roles of Men and Women in Light of
Scripture and Social Sciences . Servant Books, 1980.

Foh, Susan T. "A Male Leadership View: The Head of the
Woman Is the Man." Women in Ministry: Four Views,
Bonnidell Clouse & Robert G. Clouse (eds.). Inter Varsity
Press, 1989: 69-105.

. Women and the Word of God: A Response to Biblical

Feminism . Presbyterian and Reformed, 1980.

Hurley, James B. Man and Woman in Biblical Pers pective .
Zondervan, 1981.

Knight, George W. III. The Role Relationship of Men and
Women: New Testament Teaching . Moody Press, 1985.

. New Testament Teaching on the Role Relationship of

Men and Women. Baker, 1977.

Otwell, John H. And Sarah Laughed: the Status of Women in
the Old Testament . Westminster, 1975.

Swartley, Willard M. Slavery. Sabbath. War, and Women:
Case Issues in Biblical Interpretation. Herald Press, 1983.

EQUALITY OR
SUBORDINATION?

4

Allen Guenther

The Creation Account

Gladys Aylward, the unmarried missionary whose life-
story, "The Small Woman" was made into a film, ex-
pressed her insecurities about her famous ministry: "I
wasn't God's first choice for what I've done for China.
There was somebody else . . . I don't know who it was
— God's first choice. It must have been a man — a
wonderful man. A well-educated man. I don't know
what happened. Perhaps he died. Perhaps he wasn't
willing. . . . And God looked down . . . and saw Gladys
Aylward." — Phyllis Thompson, A Transparent
Woman: The Compelling Story of Gladys Aylward

Genesis 1 — 3 stands at the center of the Bibles
teaching regarding the role and relationship of women
and men. It is a foundational word which addresses all
humanity.

i

48 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Genesis 1 and 2 lead us to the original beauty of
God's design — how we might be. From that original
masterpiece, we can judge all attempts to express re-
sponses of faithful ministry among the people of God.

GENESIS 1:1—2:3

The Perspective

The account of creation is given from two inter-
locking perspectives. The first is recorded in Genesis
1:1 — 2:3. Here, in two parallel, three-day sequences, the
writer pictures the creation of all things.

In the first three days God creates the world, sepa-
rating it into its component parts (land, air, sea) and fix-
ing their boundaries. The next three days God fills the
earth with the moving beings and gives them the task of
ruling over the spheres previously created.

The account takes us from the heavens to the earth,
from the inorganic to the organic, from the lower forms
of life to the highest form — people. The movement of
thought points to people as the apex of creation. It is
only after human beings (both male and female) have
been created, and commissioned as God's repre-
sentatives, that the world is said to be "Very good." It is
then that God rests from his creative work. The human
beings are to carry out the remainder of the task under
the blessing and supervision of the Almighty.

The Image of God

To fulfill that task, humans, unlike all other life
forms, are made in "the form (image) and with the fea-
tures (likeness) of God" (1:26). Unlike other creatures, of
whom God made many kinds (1:20-22), God made only

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 49

one kind of human (1:26-27). He made two of them (man
and woman), but only one kind.

The alternation between the singular and plural, as
well as the emphases on their being male and female
and together being the image of God, are important as-
pects of the description:

"Let us make [a] human in our image, having our fea-
tures .... So God created the human in his own image.
With his own features he created him. He created them
male and female. Then God (he) blessed them and said to
them: Tou (plural) have many children, so that you (plu-
ral) can fill the world and rule over all of it. Control all
the fish. . r (w. 26,27).

The retelling of this event in Genesis 5:1-2 adds the
detail of their naming: "On the day God created a hu-
man, he made him with God's own features. He created
them male and female. Then he blessed them. He also
named them 'human' on the very day he created
them."

This alternation between singular and plural, with
reference to both God and humans, suggests that male
and female are together in the image of God and col-
lectively share God's features. Alone, they cannot ad-
equately reflect the image of God. Every reference to the
"image" or "features [likeness]" is to the collective hu-
man [= odara], subsequently explained as creation of
the male and female. Being male and female is an es-
sential part of what it means to be like God. There is
something unusual about people in that their sexuality
reflects the nature of God implanted in them. In addi-
tion, the statement "let us make [a] human in our im-
age," implies that their complementary nature reflects
the social character of God.

The first picture of creation affirms that both male
and female are given the mandate to procreate and to

50

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

rule the life that has sprung from the earth at God's
command. Neither is responsible to rule, control, or
dominate the other. In fact, the world of people is ex-
cluded from the sphere of human dominion and rule.

Significantly, objections to the view of male and fe-
male as equals do not focus attention on Genesis 1. This
passage clearly affirms the total equality of male and fe-
male. Not a syllable is uttered about role distinctions.
Nothing is said about one ruling over the other.
Together they are human; together they are in the like-
ness and bear the features of God.

GENESIS 2:4-25

Perspective of the Passage

Genesis 2:4-25 gives us a second snapshot of crea-
tion. An underlying argument connects the two accounts
as follows. In Genesis 1, humans are presented as God's
agents on earth to rule all animate life and the source
(earth) from which it springs. Humans are the apex of
creation. The world exists in total harmony only if hu-
mans supervise it. But if people are created last, then
the whole world can exist, for a brief time at least, with-
out humans. That would deny the essential role of peo-
ple in maintaining the organic world in its right re-
lationship to God. Therefore, this second creation
snapshot shows God empowering people for their task
and modeling the creation activity. Humans are shown
how to rule over the plants (the Garden of Eden) and
are pictured exercising authority over the animals
(naming).

Verse 5 confirms this understanding of the passage.
It cites two reasons for the lack of plant life: because
God had not sent any rain, and because there was still

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 5 1

no person to do the work in the garden. The first de-
ficiency was met by sending up a mist to water the soil
(v. 6); the second, by creating a person (v. 7). Having
made the point that the existence of people was es-
sential to the well-being of all fife on earth, the author
then proceeds to describe in detail the creation of all liv-
ing beings in the same order they are given in
Genesis 1: plants, animals, and people (2:8ff.).
Describing the creation of male and female in two differ-
ent stages is necessary to point out that humans are es-
sential for the proper functioning of the rest of the or-
ganic order. Without it, the two snapshots of creation
stand in conflict with one another.

The Creation of the Woman

The creation texts assume a male figure original.
The evidence for this lies in the words, "because she was
taken from a man" (v. 23b). Some interpreters contend
that we should see significance in Eve being created af-
ter Adam. But nowhere in Scripture is the argument
made that the husband is head of the family because
Adam was older than Eve, or because any other hus-
band was older than his wife.

The man was created distinct from all other life
forms. Genesis 2:7 describes him as personally shaped
by God from the dust of the ground and infused with
life-giving breath. He stands apart from the animals on
both counts.

The woman is a clone with a difference. This unique
cloning operation suggests that the male human is in-
complete, an incompleteness which cannot be addressed
by another male alone. That constitutes a strong state-
ment in a patriarchal society where women were more
seen than heard, and where marriage was not known

52 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

primarily for companionship. Yet the text emphasizes
the social rather than the reproductive function of the
woman at this point. Presumably, God could have creat-
ed multiple persons of the order of Adam by a means
other than sexual intercourse. The animal world even
now contains creatures (hermaphrodites) which possess
both male and female organs.

The subsequent creation of the woman does not
point to a lesser role for her (witness the mandate given
equally to man and woman in Gen. 1). Nor can the fact
that the man was created first be read as grounds for
his authority over the animals and the woman, any
more than the fact that the animals were created before
the woman point to their superiority over her. Nor is the
ground, created before all living beings, more important
than the animals, plants, and people formed from it.
Since woman is different than man, the text indicates
that the essential identity (image of God) which char-
acterizes them is clearly recognizable in both. Being
male and female does not erase or diminish their es-
sential identity with one another or their kinship with
God.

The woman is created because "it is not good for the
man to be alone" (2:16). She is God's solution to his in-
completeness. She answers to his need by being a "help-
er who corresponds to him, one who is his counterpart. 99
Strictly speaking, the word "help" used here refers to a
person who has the capacity to help. A helper uniformly
refers to someone, like God (16 out of 21 occurrences),
who is stronger or has more resources than the person
in need. It never refers to an assistant, an inferior, or
one unrelated to the circumstances or condition for
which the help is required. Woman's role as "helper" (by

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 53

any interpretation of that word) indicates that she
shares the tasks mandated by God.

When the man recognized the woman as his counter-
part, he broke out in poetic ecstasy: "bone of my bone
and flesh of my flesh" (2:23). This phrase appears else-
where in the Old Testament as a reference to people
who share a common bloodline or relationship (Judg.
9:2; 2 Sam. 5:1; 19:12,13). It is never used of children
(minors), of descendants, or of subordinates. Instead, it
is a claim or appeal by the speaker, for his/her own ben-
efit, to equality of right or relationship (except in the
case of Laban [Gen. 29:14], where it appears to be a
statement of qualification for marriage). This phrase be-
comes a way of emphasizing the equality of the speaker
and the person addressed.

Many interpreters have argued that Adam here
names his wife, thereby accepting responsibility for her
and exercising kindly authority over her. That inter-
pretation, however, does not reflect a careful reading of
the Hebrew. When a person names another, such as a
child or a slave, an active verb is used (he named....).
When, as in verse 23, the passive is used, the name re-
fers to a nickname or a characterization by others to de-
scribe the person being referred to. This verse should,
therefore, be translated, "people will call her woman" or
"she will be called woman." In other words, the man
does not name the woman. The passive (she will be
called) is never used in the Scripture to describe the
naming process by which a person asserts responsibility
for, or authority over another. The act of naming the
woman, by which the man asserts his authority over
her, occurs only after the fall (3:20), thereby pointing to
the naming as one of the consequences of the fall.

54 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

The Marital Relationship

The essential oneness of the two (bone of my bone;
flesh of my flesh) in a special relationship is affirmed in
marriage. The union of these two complementary per-
sons (male and female) is sealed by a covenant, ex-
pressed in the words, "forsake" and "cling," "Forsake"
speaks of a severing of one's primary tie in favor of an-
other. The act is particularly significant when written to
people in a culture where the tie to the parental home
was strong. The original creation design was that the
husband/wife relationship would become the primary tie
of human relationships, setting aside the parent/child,
child/parent, child/child, or individual/kinship group tie.

Every Israelite would have immediately noticed the
unusual phrase, "therefore a man leaves his father and
mother and clings (is glued) to his wife" (2:24). The
woman does not get attached to the man's family as a
possession or as an assistant. The man goes to her. That
is particularly significant since Israelite couples lived
with the husband's parents. But this text describes the
husband as "leaving" his parental home and "being unit-
ed" with his wife. The woman is the helper of the man.
She now assumes the social role formerly held by his
parents.

Genesis 2:4-25 contains no hint of superiority or in-
feriority of role distinctions, or of the loss of identity.
Together, man and woman, both fully in God's image,
are one whole in a way in which the man alone, or two
men together, could not be.

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 55

GENESIS 3

Temptation and Fall

Throughout the centuries students of the Scriptures
have puzzled over why Eve was approached by the ser-
pent. We simply are not told. And since there are no
clues, we do well to leave the question unanswered.

What we know is that the tempter stimulated in Eve
the longing to be as God in respect to exercising in-
dependent moral judgments. The act of ruling requires
decisions. "Knowing good and evil" is the quality where-
by people make mature moral judgments. The woman
wanted to make self-determined decisions. This act of
disobedience represents the short-cut to moral maturity.
It is a grasping for the Creator's power by the one ap-
pointed to represent God.

The text indicates that Eve was deceived (3:1,13)
and hints that Adam sinned knowingly (3:6). The differ-
ence between "sins of the moment" (Lev. 22:14; Num.
35:9,15; Deut. 4:42; 19:4; Josh. 20:3,5,9) and "sins com-
mitted with a high hand" (deliberately, exultantly; cf.
Num. 33:3; Deut. 19:11) is important. Those designa-
tions appear in Israel's legislative literature to dis-
tinguish between one who has committed manslaughter
and one who is a murderer. The willful sin merits the
death penalty; the unwitting sin does not. That makes
Adam the more accountable sinner. That is why he is
addressed first, not because he is the representative of
the family.

Consequences and Curses

It is important to note the effects of the fall on hu-
man relationships. Our present experiences are not rep-
resentative of God's design for redemptive restoration.

56 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Since redemption represents a restoration to harmony
as God initially created humanity, it should lead us
back to Genesis 1,2 (not chs. 3ff.) as the norm for under-
standing the ministry of men and women in the divine
economy. Those who are being recreated in the divine
image are freed from the power of sin, even though the
consequences of sin remain very much apparent in peo-
ple of faith as well as in the world. But God's work of
salvation reverses the effects of the fall through Christ's
victory over death and Satan, and by breaking the
stranglehold of the powers of this age. One of those pow-
ers is the frequent domination of men over women.

The first sin brought with it a tidal wave of con-
sequences. The new self-understanding of Adam and
Eve was mixed with shame and fear of self-disclosure,
followed by their refusal to acknowledge responsibility
and by mutual accusations. But God would have none of
it. He addresses each as an independent moral agent.
He addresses the man first, however, since his sin was
the greater and worthy of greater punishment. God is-
sues the curses in the reverse order to the call of ac-
countability, namely, on the serpent, the woman, and
the man. The final stages of punishment — acts of grace
as well as judgment — are expulsion from the garden and
death (3:22-24; 5:4ff.).

Eve is cursed in the realm of childbearing, Adam in
tilling the ground. Why does the text distinguish be-
tween the two in terms of the two aspects of the creation
mandate of 1:26-30? Did women not work the fields? Did
men not have a role in begetting and rearing children?
Of course! The reason for this separation and distinction
is unclear. It was not present in the original mandate.
In the case of Adam, the connection with the soil is
linked to his being uniquely formed from the soil. In the

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 57

case of Eve, the act of childbearing is connected to her
unique contribution to their joint calling. Both share in
each aspect of the creation mandate; each experiences
the pain most sharply in one dimension.

The meaning of "Eve's desire" has attracted consid-
erable attention because it bears upon the issue of the
woman's subordination or equality. If we read teshuqah
as "sexual desire" (cf. Canticles 7:10), the divine decree
on the woman means that her sexual longing for her
husband will supersede her fear of the pain of bearing
children. But this reading of the text does not clarify
how and why the man should/would rule over her. On
the other hand, a comparison of these words with God's
reproof of Cain (Gen. 4:7) suggests quite another mean-
ing for teshuqah. In 4:7 God confronts Cain for being an-
gry because God has not accepted Cain's cavalier at-
titude in bringing an inferior sacrifice. The con-
frontation includes the words, "Isn't it the case that if
you had done the right thing, you would be smiling, but
since you have not done the right thing, sin is crouching
at your door."

Its desire (is) for you

but you will/shall rule over it.

The comparable text with regard to Eve (3:16), says:

Your desire (is) for your husband
but he will/shall rule over you.

The parallel is too perfect to be coincidental. The
construction of the two sentences is identical. The only
difference between them is in the referent of the pro-
nouns. Genesis 4:7 indicates that an acceptable trans-
lation of teshuqah is "desire to rule or to dominate," es-

58

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

pecially in view of the fact that the line ends with the
concept of ruling. If we accept this translation, Genesis
3:16 introduces us to the battle between the sexes. As a
consequence of the fall, women will attempt to dominate
their husbands, but the males will forcefully assert their
rule (domination) over women.

This latter interpretation also does justice to the par-
allel to the curses spoken against the serpent and
Adam. In each case hostility has sprung to life. In the
first instance, the conflict erupts between the serpent
and the woman (and her descendants). In the second, it
invades the marriage and creates disharmony, with the
man becoming dominant. In the third instance, the
curse brings the earth into revolt against the man. The
task of ruling is made immeasurably more difficult, only
to result in a return to the very soil from which the man
came. The winner of each round becomes the loser of the
next.

initiating agent > conqueror

serpent > woman

woman > man

man > ground

A perversion has occurred. In failing to heed God s
command, every domain of life has become the scene of
major conflict.

The implication is that the domination of the female
by the male is a result of the fall. Such domination, it
suggests, is the inevitable course of events in a sinful
world, but it does not represent God's original intention.
Since God's redemptive plan is to reverse the con-
sequences of the fall — to remake us in his image — to
continue male domination is to deny the reconciling
work of God in the relationship between the sexes.

EQUALITY OR SUBORDINATION? 59

IMPLICATIONS FOR MINISTRY

Genesis 1 teaches the equality and complementarity
of women and men in their being and their calling.
Arguments drawn from Genesis 2 — 3 for the sub-
ordination of women cannot be sustained. While it is
true that Eve fell into sin first, why should that restrict
the ministry of women? The man's sin was the more se-
vere. If anyone's ministry were to be restricted, it should
be his.

Clearly, arguments against the full and equal min-
istry of women cannot be sustained from Genesis 1 — 3.
Instead, these chapters affirm the complementary char-
acter of man and woman and their full equality in the
mandate to rule the created order and to procreate and
fill the earth with offspring. The issues of power and
control were introduced in the fall. The man's domina-
tion of the woman over the centuries is the result of fal-
lenness, not the result of being in God's image or in any
mandate given to him. The woman's attempts at dom-
ination are equally the result of fallenness. At its very
least, redemption addresses that perversion, making
men and women capable of ministering to one another
through the gifts and according to the calling of God.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . Baker, 1985.

Clark, Stephen B. Man and Woman in Christ. Servant Books,
1980.

Evans, Mary J. Woman in the Bible. InterVarsity, 1983.

60 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Fob, Susan. "What Is the Woman's Desire." Westminister
Theological Journal 37 (1975): 376-383.

Hurley, James B. Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective .
Zondervan, 1981.

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM 5

Lorraine E. Matties
Gordon H. Matties

Old Testament Perspectives on the
Ministry of Women

In 621 B.C., while renovating the Temple, King
Josiah's workers discovered a scroll of the law. When
Josiah read the scroll he was horrified. The people of
Juddh were unfaithful to God's commands. He sent
five advisors to consult the Lord about the teachings of
the scroll. The advisors went straight to Huldah, a
prophetess. Her message from the Lord was clear: "I
am going to punish Jerusalem and all its people, as
written in the book that the King has read." — 2 Kings
22

We can learn much about God and his people in the
Old Testament's narratives, laws, poetry and prophetic
writings. We must be careful, however, to distinguish
between our culture and theirs when we apply Old
Testament stories and laws to our situations. Traditions

62 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

and social laws have changed, but God was clearly work-
ing to redeem the Israelite people in the midst of their
culture, even as he is working to redeem the world
today.

OLD TESTAMENT CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

Although the creation accounts in Genesis indicate
that God's image is reflected in both male and female
(see Ch. 4), God is consistently referred to with mas-
culine pronouns. That was not unusual in a society that
often ignored women altogether. But a careful reading of
the Old Testament shows that the images used to de-
scribe God include both female and male characteristics.
Beside the many masculine metaphors of God, such as
husband, warrior, and king, stand images that refer to
the maternal qualities of giving birth, nurturing and
protecting (Num. 11:11-12; Deut. 32:18; Ps. 22:9-10; Isa.
42:14; 46:3-4; 49:15; 63:15-16; Jer. 31:20, 22; Hos. 2:16,
21). Such multiple images are evidence that God's iden-
tity was not defined solely by the male gender.

Moreover, Israel rejected the sexually-based deities
of the ancient world. In distinction from other ancient
Near-Eastern religions, whose gods and goddesses were
explicitly linked with sexuality through fertility rites,
the God of Israel was known as creator, nourisher, and
sustainer. God's nature was expressed through au-
thentic and just relationships, not in the manipulation
of the universe through sexual ritual. For that reason,
the Israelites abhorred the imitation of the gods through
sexual activity or in sacred prostitution. They regarded
the human family as sacred and preserved it by refusing
to link sexual activity with the divine/human
relationship.

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM

63

Ideally, that fact should have offered women a more
prominent place of dignity, and indeed, the Israelites re-
garded motherhood highly. But the reality for women
apart from that role most often fell short of the ideal.
For the most part, women were dependent on and sub-
ordinate to their fathers before marriage, and to their
husbands afterward. A wife was expected to uphold her
husband's dignity by maintaining his household and
bearing children, preferably sons. The fate of women
outside those prescribed positions was often precarious,
even desperate. A number of stories tell of women being
brutally mistreated by their male masters, with no
record of punishment for the crime (e.g., Gen. 19:1-11;
Judg. 19).

Israelite culture was clearly male-dominated.
Leadership positions were primarily filled by men, al-
though there were some notable exceptions.

THE PRIESTHOOD

The priesthood is the clearest example of male lead-
ership. It was reserved for male descendants of Aaron.
All others, including women, were excluded from that of-
fice. Since God was not understood as a sexual being,
however, the reason for the exclusion of women from the
priesthood must be found elsewhere. Some have sug-
gested the ritual uncleanness of women (because of the
menstrual cycle and childbirth) els a reason for exclu-
sion, but this is not satisfactory. A whole range of rea-
sons for ritual impurity prevented both males and fe-
males from service in worship at various times (e.g.,
Lev. 15).

The Old Testament offers no explanation for the
choice of Aaron's descendants as priests. Many scholars

64

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

have suggested that men and women serving together in
the temple rites was a problem because of pagan re-
ligious practices in which the worshipers used sexual ac-
tivity to influence the gods.

The example of the male priesthood in Israel cannot
be used to argue the exclusion of women from leadership
in the church. Three arguments prohibit such a conclu-
sion. First, the priestly role was hereditary. Only the
Levites from the family of Aaron were eligible. The re-
strictions on priestly eligibility eliminated most men as
well as all women. There is no corresponding priestly
family in the church from which leadership is drawn.

Secondly, public leadership in Israel was not limited
to the priestly family. Judges, kings, and prophets were
also leaders who gave leadership in religious rites, cov-
enant renewal, administration, and teaching. Women
were included in the ranks of judges, royalty, and
prophets.

Thirdly, and most compelling, the New Testament
never defines church leadership roles in terms of the
Old Testament priesthood. On the contrary, the New
Testament depicts all God's people as priests (e.g., 1 Pet.
2:4-10). The only Old Testament leadership role that
persists as a leadership ministry in the church is proph-
ecy. None of the leadership lists in the New Testament
mentions priesthood as a ministry (cf. Rom. 12:1-8; 1
Cor. 12-14; Eph. 4:1-16). The priesthood is not a model
for leadership in the church. Therefore, its restrictions
cannot apply to leadership in the church.

OLD TESTAMENT WOMEN IN MINISTRY

What did ministry mean for women in ancient
Israel? Although the majority of Old Testament texts

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM

65

about women place them in roles of subordination, there
are exceptions that indicate that the prevailing at-
titudes toward women were not the only ones, or the
ideal ones.

Women and the Law

Israelite law reveals God's plan for the people of
Israel. The covenant is consistent with God's character,
and yet reflects the limitations of particular cultural set-
tings. Many examples can be cited to show that Israelite
law did not afford complete equality to both men and
women. Israelite law was addressed to men. In fact,
since a woman was part of the man's household, the law
did not always distinguish her from his material posses-
sions (cf. Ex. 20:17; Deut. 5:21). One of the many laws
that favored men over women allowed a husband to ac-
cuse his wife of infidelity, and to submit her to a testing
ordeal (Num. 5:11-31). Women had no similar right.
Except in their role as mother, women were always in-
ferior to and dependent on men.

We must understand woman's legal status, however,
in terms of how law functioned within the larger social
patterns in Israel. In relation to the cultural context,
law preserved and fostered order in society. But more
importantly, Israelite law was intended to assure the in-
tegrity, stability, and economic viability of the family as
the basic unit of society. In most cases, the interests of
the family were identified with its male head. His rights
and duties were described with respect to other men and
their property.

In spite of the Israelite woman's subordinate role,
some women acted independently of men to ensure their
own security. The daughters of Lot (Gen. 19:30-38);
Tamar, the daughter-in-law of Judah (Gen. 38); and

66 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Ruth and Naomi all took the initiative to preserve the
high law of family solidarity even when performing
questionable actions. Hannah vowed to give her son to
the Lord (1 Sam. 1:11; cf. Num. 30:3-15) even before she
was pregnant, apparently without concern for the law
that said her husband could revoke her vows because of
the priority of family interests.

Yet even within the Old Testament legal literature
an openness to change is evident. In Numbers 27 the
daughters of Zelophehad ask Moses to change the in-
heritance laws so that they can inherit their father's
property. Moses, after consulting with God, allows their
request. In Numbers 36, however, a group of clan lead-
ers (men) suggest to Moses that the new law could en-
danger the landholdings of the tribe if the daughters
married outside the tribe. In response, Moses decrees
that a daughter who inherits her father's property may
marry only within his tribe (Num. 36:6-9). This example
shows how case law developed in ancient Israel. More
importantly, it shows that women were able to raise is-
sues publicly that affected their status. The texts show
that Israelite law was flexible and adaptable to new sit-
uations. It is interesting to note the way in which the
biblical record reflects Israel's continuing interpretation
of God's will for new situations (e.g., Deut. 15:12 revises
Ex. 21:2-11).

Women and Wisdom

For the most part, women are depicted in the Book
of Proverbs in the roles of mother and wife. The prov-
erbs praise the gracious and prudent wife who enhances
her husband's reputation (12:4) and repudiates the wife
who is contentious and brings shame on her husband
(19:13; 21:9; 25:4; 27:15-16). As mothers, women are

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM

67

shown to be teachers alongside their husbands (1:8;
6:20; 23:22), except in Proverbs 31:1-9 where their activ-
ities are seen as independent. The exceptional woman of
Proverbs 31:10-31 is a model of a woman who is engaged
in all manner of economic and social activity, who cares
for her family and ministers to the needy.

The most important feature about the role of women
in the Book of Proverbs is the personification of woman
as wisdom and folly (especially in Prov. 1 — 9). Proverbs
8 clearly shows that wisdom is closely associated with
God as a unique presence or principle of God's activity
at creation. Hence, the exceptional woman of Proverbs
31 reflects the embodiment of wisdom in the life of a
woman. Thus, although the proverbs themselves func-
tioned primarily as instruction to young men, the Book
of Proverbs offered women a model to follow — the per-
sonification of divine wisdom.

Several women associated with David exemplify this
practical application of wisdom in the public sphere.
Two unnamed "wise" women are involved in diplomatic
activity during his reign; the people recognized a wise
woman from Tekoa (2 Sam. 14:1-24), and another from
the city of Abel (2 Sam. 20) as skillful negotiators. The
fact that David's general Joab engaged their services
suggests that the women had leadership positions in
their cities.

Similarly, before David becomes king, Abigail acts
wisely to cover for her foolish husband (who happens to
be named Nabal, meaning "fool"; 1 Sam. 24). Although
she is not called a "wise woman," as the others were, she
fulfilled the role of the diplomatic and perceptive wise
woman who is able to act decisively in difficult political
situations.

68

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Women and Prophecy

Several Old Testament women were called prophets,
the most important office in Israel. The prophet repre-
sented the King of Heaven. He or she was the 'Voice" of
God communicating Gods will for the present to the
Israelite community. Through prophets God appointed
and deposed kings and criticized other leaders who act-
ed contrary to his will Prophecy offered a critique of the
people's attempts to master their own destiny, and an-
nounced new alternatives for redemption and liberation.

In the period before the monarchy, two women stood
out as prophets: Miriam, the sister of Aaron (Ex. 15:20),
and Deborah ( Judg. 4:4). Miriam demonstrated her lead-
ership when she dared to accuse Moses of his exclusive
claim to the word of God. Although the people criticized
Miriam for challenging Moses* unique relationship to
God, the prophet Micah remembers her as one of the
three great leaders of the exodus era (Mic. 6:4).

Deborah, who also performed the tasks of a judge,
was a politician and strategist. She received an oracle
from God and passed the orders on to Barak. No one
questioned the validity of her role as an agent of Gods
word. The poetic compositions of Miriam and Deborah
are among the few biblical passages thought to have
been composed by women (Ex. 15:20-21; Judg. 5).

The story at the beginning of this chapter reports
how King Josiah sent some of his officials to consult the
prophetess Huldah concerning the validity of the book of
the law discovered during the temple renovations (2 Ki.
22:8-20; 2 Chron. 34:14-28). Huldah f s word from God
confirmed the authenticity of the law book. Her activity
was no different from that of male prophets. That Josiah
would consult a woman at all makes her story re-

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM

69

markable since both Jeremiah and Zephaniah were act-
ing as prophets at that time.

Ezekiel (13:17-23) and Nehemiah (6:14) condemned
other prophetesses as false prophets, not because they
were women but because they were opposing the will of
God.

The most fascinating dimension of women's relation
to prophecy in the Old Testament is the vision of Joel
about the last days (2:28-29). This text, cited in Peter's
Pentecost sermon (Acts 2:17), reflects an understanding
that God's desire for humanity is larger than any cul-
tural limitations. Although both men and women could
be prophets, few women were able to break through the
barriers of patriarchal social norms, Joel, however, envi-
sioned a time when they would not have to struggle
against cultural restrictions, for God would define what
was possible for humanity. Although Acts 2:17 may well
echo the hope of Joel, his vision is still awaiting its com-
plete realization (see also the puzzling passage in Jer.
31:21-22).

Other Women in the Historical Narratives

Besides the women who are remembered for their
public ministry, other women also figure prominently in
the narratives of the Old Testament. Narrative (history
and story) functions to explain the world as it is ex-
perienced and to invite readers to make responsible
choices for the future. Women are sometimes depicted in
this literature as colorful personalities, sometimes as
abused victims, sometimes as responsible wives and
mothers, and sometimes as near legendary heroines.
Yet women are rarely the center of attention. Most often
they fulfill supporting roles to men. Several of these
women deserve mention, not so much because they en-

70 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

gaged in public ministry, or because they were leaders
in Israel, but because they were models of faithfulness,
which is ultimately the most important ministry of all.

Through their faithfulness these women are often
the hidden agents of God's redemptive activity. For ex-
ample, the matriarchs of Genesis, although usually con-
cerned with domestic affairs, sometimes take it upon
themselves to ensure that God's will is accomplished de-
spite the interests of powerful men. Rebekah secretly ar-
ranged for Jacob to receive Isaac's blessing (Gen. 27).
She also initiated a reconciliation between the es-
tranged brothers, Jacob and Esau (Gen. 27:41-45). The
Hebrew midwives in Egypt, Shiphrah and Puah, along
with Moses' mother and sister, dared to defy Pharaoh's
orders that all male children be killed (Ex. 1:15-2:10).
Bathsheba and Esther played significant roles in royal
courts even though queens and queen mothers were not
common in the ancient world (1 Ki. 1:15-21; 2:19-20;
Esther).

Three final comments round out this survey. First,
even when women suffered at the hands of others, they
were paid special attention by God. God visited Hagar,
Abraham's concubine, in the desert. She was promised a
child, and in reply she rightly exclaimed her surprise at
having seen God (Gen. 16:7-13). Later, after she had
been expelled by Abraham and was near death in the
desert, God came to her and her son Ishmael and prom-
ised to make a nation of their descendants (Gen. 21:8-
21).

Second, women were sometimes the ones who most
perceptively recognized the hand of God in current
events. That is most obvious in the Book of Joshua,
where a woman was among the few to acknowledge that
God was with Israel (e.g., Rahab in Josh. 2).

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM

71

Third, it is noteworthy that no criticism is ever di-
rected against women's public roles in Israelite or non-
Israelite societies by the writers of the Old Testament.
Priests who do not fulfill their obligations are con-
demned. False prophets are judged. Unjust judges and
kings are denounced. But nowhere do the Old
Testament writers express their or God s disapproval of
women in leadership roles. They were not seen as trans-
gressing in a male-only domain.

CONCLUSION

There is a predominance of male leadership in the
Old Testament. How do we explain this pattern? At
least three factors are involved. The first is patriarchy.
A patriarchal society does not necessarily exclude fe-
male leadership (other ancient Near-Eastern societies
were patriarchal and had prophetesses, priestesses, and
queens), but it defines identity through the family line
of the male. Women usually married in their early
teens, surrendered their own power by entering the hus-
band's family structure, and were confined to the home
to bear children and care for the family. Women rarely
became public figures in patriarchal societies. Secondly,
formal education was restricted to males. Women were
not prepared for leadership roles in public or religious
service. Thirdly, the priesthood was restricted to male
descendants of Aaron. This excluded most men as well
as all women. We are given no reasons for God's choice
in this matter.

But even these powerful forces did not exclude wom-
en from leadership roles in Israel. The exceptional lead-
ership of women such as Miriam, Deborah, and the wise
women of Tekoa and Abel suggest that anyone could

72 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

serve in recognized positions of leadership. The
Israelites clearly acknowledged wisdom and prophecy as
gifts from God to men and women for private and public
service.

Ministry cannot, of course, be limited to positions of
leadership. This is shown by the prominence of women
in family life, where they were sometimes considered su-
perior to men in their wisdom and ability to make de-
cisions that affected the destiny not only of the family,
but of the people of Israel as well. Similarly, women
were respected as mothers just as men were respected
as fathers (Deut. 5:12). Mothers and fathers were equal-
ly responsible for the nurture of children, and for in-
struction in wisdom. So also the Song of Songs il-
lustrates that women were ideally equal partners in the
sexual relationship. Although Israels practice did not
often reflect these possibilities and ideals, the Old
Testament testifies to a vision of mutuality and equality
toward which God is moving his people. God's spirit or
wisdom can rest on any individual, male or female. If we
choose to participate in Gods continuing work of re-
demption, we will find ourselves moving toward that
vision.

Even though men were more prominent in Israel's
leadership, women were never criticized for offering the
gifts that God had given them. In the entire Old
Testament only the Song of Songs alludes to the curse of
subordination in Genesis 3:16, and in doing so the writ-
er transforms a negative image into a positive one of
mutuality (7:10).

No writer in the Old Testament ever advocates the
subordination of women based on Genesis 3. The crea-
tion order is never mentioned as the basis for theological
viewpoints or practice with regard to the place of women

SHE SPEAKS WITH WISDOM 73

in Israel. In contrast, however, women are mentioned as
participants in the hope of God's coming rule. There is,
therefore, a correspondence between the creation ideal
and the redemptive vision of Gods coming kingdom.
That vision, and not the social pressures that forced
women to serve in a subservient capacity, ought to be
the clue that guides Christians in understanding the
Old Testament.

Above all, the prophets envision women as well as
men as bearers of the Spirit of God, with whom all
things are possible. God's design for redemption is di-
rected toward the mutuality of the sexes. The goal of
creation is a new humanity — male and female — a com-
munity of equal redemptive agents in a broken world.
For women in particular, the Old Testament witness
demonstrates that women are neither restricted nor ex-
empt from answering God's call to ministry in all its
various forms, regardless of the limitations a society
may impose.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Bird, Phyllis. "Images of Women in the Old Testament," The
Bible and Liberation: Political and Social Hermeneutics.
Ed. N.K Gottwald. Orbis Books, 1983. 252-288.

Brenner, Athalya. The Israelite Woman: Social Role and
Literary Type in Biblical Narrative. JSOT Press, 1985.

Evans, Mary J. Woman in the Bible. InterVarsity Press, 1983.

Myers, Carol. "The Roots of Restriction: Women in Early
Israel." Biblical Archeologist 41 (1978): 91-103.

74 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Scalise, Pamela J. "Women in Ministry: Reclaiming our Old
Testament Heritage." Review and Expositor 83 (1986): 7-
13.

Strom, Donna. "Where Are the Deborahs and Baraks?"
Evangelical Review of Theology 10 (1986): 19-26.

Swidler, Leonard. Biblical Affirmations of Women.
Westminster Press, 1979.

Trible, Phyllis. God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality. Fortress
Press, 1978.

JESUS AND WOMEN

6

Timothy Geddert

A New Vision for Humanity

With the possible exception of the angel's announce-
ment of the coming conception, the scriptural record
never shows us Mary at home. She is hurrying off to
Elizabeth, then going to Bethlehem for the census, then
to Jerusalem for purification rites, down to Egypt,
back to Nazareth, then to Jerusalem again for
Passover, to Cana for the wedding, to Capernaum, to a
city near the Sea of Galilee with her other sons to per-
suade Jesus to come home, and finally to Jerusalem
again. — Dorothy A Pape, In Search of God's Ideal
Woman

Jesus lived in an age of sexual discrimination.
Women were the objects of abuse and dehumanization.
Most were barred from full participation in public life
and from leadership roles in Jewish religion.

Twentieth-century Christians disagree whether
women are to be excluded from certain leadership roles

76 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

because of their sex. Those who say some leadership
roles are divinely ordained to be filled only by men
would deny that the issue is sexual discrimination. The
issue is rather "creation order" (see Ch. 3). Those who
believe that women should participate fully at all levels
of church ministry and leadership see the exclusion of
women from some ministry roles as a form of sexual
discrimination.

These two issues (discrimination and exclusion)
were, in fact, two sides of the same coin in first-century
Palestine. The radical way in which Jesus related to
women dealt with both issues at the same time and has
important implications for the contemporary church
seeking to live out Jesus' vision for humanity.

A MAN OUT OF STEP WITH HIS WORLD

Jesus, though divine, knew how to relate to hu-
mankind; though righteous, how to relate to sinners;
though king of kings, how to relate to common people;
and though a man, how to relate to women. Dorothy
Sayers in Are Women Human? writes:

They [women] had never known a man like this Man —
there never has been such another. A prophet and teacher
who never nagged at them, never flattered or coaxed or
patronized; who never made arch jokes about them, never
treated them either as "The women, God help us!" or "The
ladies, God bless them!"; who rebuked without querulous-
ness and praised without condescension; who took their
questions and arguments seriously; who never mapped
out their sphere for them, never urged them to be fem-
inine or jeered at them for being female; who had no axe
to grind and no uneasy male dignity to defend... (p. 47).

Jesus 1 way of relating to women contrasted sharply
with the rabbis' way. Their approach was to foster at-

JESUS AND WOMEN 77

titudes and introduce legislation designed to keep wom-
en out of public life as far as possible. In their eyes,
women had two primary roles: to raise children for their
husbands, and to satisfy their husband's sexual desires
lest he satisfy them immorally elsewhere. No rabbi
would have had women disciples, and some Jewish re-
ligious groups shunned the company of women
altogether.

In contrast to the rabbis, Jesus related openly and
naturally with women of all sorts, respectable and im-
moral (Lk. 7:37; 8:2,3; Jn. 4:17,18), "clean" and "un-
clean" (Mk. 5:30-34). He touched them (Mk. 1:31) and
let them touch him (Lk. 7:39). He even defended a sinful
woman for kissing him in public (Lk. 7:45-47)!

Women were also a part of the entourage that fol-
lowed Jesus as he traveled around the country min-
istering to the crowds (Lk. 8:1-3). Not only did women
accompany him, they ministered to him (Mk. 15:41),
with him (Lk. 8:1-3), and for him (Jn. 4:28-30, 39-42).

Jesus openly engaged in theological discussions with
women (Jn. 4:7-26; 11:21-27; Mk. 7:24-29), something no
rabbi of the first century would have considered. He en-
trusted some of his most important self-revelations to
women. To the woman at the well he revealed himself
as Christ [Messiah] and "I am" [i.e., Yahweh] (cf. Jn.
4:25,26). To Martha he revealed himself as the resurrec-
tion and the life (Jn. 11:25). In return, women were
among those who most clearly understood his identity
(Jn. 11:27) and his mission (Mk. 14:3-9). Interestingly,
the resurrection message was first entrusted to women
by the angel who commissioned them to tell the male
disciples (Mk. 16:7; Jn. 20:18-20).

In Luke 10:38-41 Jesus chides Martha for being dis-
tracted with the meal preparations and affirms her sis-

78 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

ter Mary who "sat at the Lord's feet." The incident is
much more than a call to value the contemplative life
over the active. It is a clear endorsement of theological
education for women. Mary had taken the posture of a
rabbi's disciple. Jesus implicitly invites Martha to join
her there.

PRINCIPLES THAT SHAPED JESUS' WAY OF
RELATING TO WOMEN

What vision motivated Jesus to relate to women as
he did? Jesus' mission was to usher in God's Kingdom, a
kingdom defined as "doing God's will on earth, as it is
done in heaven" (Mt 6:10). His mission was to act out
Gods will in all things and to call and prepare followers
to do the same. This meant living by principles that
were at odds with his contemporaries. What principles
influenced the way Jesus related to people and to wom-
en in particular?

Jesus Related to People as People

We are accustomed to defining "male" and "female"
in terms of their respective roles in the home, society,
and the church. People living in the first century did so
even more sharply. Jesus' startling contribution was not
to take the "feminine role" and modify it. Instead, he ig-
nored it! Some may object to this statement on the
grounds that he chose only men as his twelve official
disciples. It is true that only men were selected for this
role and we must assess the significance of this fact. But
apart from his selection of apostles, it is impossible to
detect any difference between the way Jesus treated
men and the way he treated women.

JESUS AND WOMEN 79

Jesus consistently lessened the significance of re-
ligious status, social standing, and economic situation.
For Jesus, religious status counted for nothing and its
lack was not a deficiency. Wealth did not increase one's
worth nor poverty decrease it. The handicapped were as
important as the able-bodied, the servant as important
as the master, the child as important as the parent. If
Jesus made any "class" distinctions at all, it was to en-
gage in affirmative action, helping the underprivileged,
the marginalized, and the oppressed gain what society
denied them.

Jesus clearly looked beyond his own race, nation,
and gender. Throughout his ministry, and decisively
through his death, Jesus prepared the way so that
Gentiles could be members alongside and equal to Jews
in God's new humanity. By his actions, Jesus showed
that a woman has an intrinsic value just as great as
that of a man. For Jesus, the equality of male and fe-
male was not a distant goal; it was a self-evident fact.

Jesus worked in a variety of ways to eliminate strict-
ly enforced differences of role based on gender. He gave
women public roles unheard of in their society; and
when men fought for authority and honor he called
them to accept precisely that to which first-century
women were normally consigned — servanthood. He
practiced it supremely himself (Mk. 10:35-45).

Jesus Dealt with the Root Cause of Sexual
Discrimination

One of the main reasons women were the objects of
sexual discrimination in first-century Palestine was
that men viewed them first and foremost as sexual be-
ings, not as human beings. Jesus reversed that priority.

80 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

He attacked the problem of sexual discrimination at its
root, male lust.

First-century rabbis blamed women for most im-
moral sexual behavior (see Jn. 8:3-6). Women were seen
as temptresses. The solution was to keep women out of
public life (so that men would not be tempted) and in
the home (where a woman could satisfy her husband's
sexual desires).

Jesus agreed with the Jewish rabbis that lust is
wrong, but he disagreed that it was inevitable in the
presence of a woman. When Jesus said, "Anyone who
looks at a woman lustfully has adulterated her already
in his heart" (Mt. 5:28), he did much more than move
the basis of adultery from open actions to hidden
thoughts. He provided a radically new solution to the
problem of lust. Adultery was to be prevented by mak-
ing men responsible for their own lustful thoughts, not
by removing women from their sight.

Lust is inevitable for men if women are viewed first
and foremost as sexual beings whose primary function is
to satisfy men's sexual desire. It is deliberate sin if wom-
en are first and foremost human beings made in God's
image.

Jesus Made Family Relationships Subordinate to
Kingdom Work

In the first century, a woman was defined almost ex-
clusively in terms of her family relations. One day a
Jewish woman called out to Jesus, "Blessed is the moth-
er who gave birth and nursed you" (Lk. 11:27). Jesus
countered with "Blessed rather are those who hear the
word of God and obey it" (11:28). Jesus made it clear
that a woman's status and blessedness do not depend on
the children she bears, however great they may be. He

JESUS AND WOMEN 81

also clearly implied that when a woman orders the pri-
orities of her life, she must never rank motherhood high-
er than kingdom work. But Jesus went even further. He
declared that his own mother, the one whom this un-
named Jewess called "blessed," could not be considered
a member of Jesus 1 true family unless she qualified, not
by physical parenthood, but by her own obedience to
God's will (Mk. 3:31-35).

Women, like men, are blessed if they hear God's
word and obey. When Jesus looked down from his cross
and declared to Mary and John, "Behold your son —
behold your mother" (Jn. 19:25-27), he was not merely
caring for his physical mother. He was defining his spir-
itual family. Mary and John, a woman and a man, stand
there as models of discipleship and members of a spir-
itual family because they heard God's word and obeyed.
They followed Jesus to his cross.

Jesus Refused to Accept the Fallen World as
Normal

No aspect of Jesus' vision has such far-reaching im-
plications as the fact that he simply refused to accept
the fallen conditions of this world as normal.

According to the rabbis, if men normally look on
women lustfully, women should be excluded from public
life. Jesus refused to accept what was common as the
norm. The ideal is the norm, not common behavior.

Jesus used the same approach when asked what
grounds made divorce legitimate (Mk. 12:18-27). His
questioners assumed that the fallen world was the norm
and that its failures had to be reckoned with and con-
trolled. Jesus said that God's original intention at crea-
tion is the norm. The kingdom of God is not defined as
humans doing their own will in the least destructive

82 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

way. It is defined as humans doing God's will on earth
as it is done in heaven. The ideal is the norm.

Clearly we live in a fallen world, and Jesus knew
that better than any of us. In a fallen world we need
guidelines to help regulate our affairs, but Jesus refused
to accept the fallen world as the norm. Many of his
teachings appear foolish when evaluated by the stan-
dards of this world. The problem is with the world, not
with Jesus' vision of the kingdom.

JESUS' EARLIEST FOLLOWERS
CATCH THE VISION

Jesus' own attitude to the question of gender re-
lations was significantly affected by his "other-worldly"
vision. He called his followers to fix their eyes on a king-
dom in which the child, the servant, and women provide
models of greatness. He called humanity to look back to
the time before sin corrupted them and to see God's
creative design. He called humanity to look forward past
their final redemption to see themselves and each other
as they were destined finally to be. He called humanity
to look around and see God's will coming to pass on
earth as it already operated in heaven. He called his fol-
lowers to live by his vision of the kingdom.

The gospel writers were among the first to catch the
vision. We know that because they passed on the stories
about Jesus' revolutionary way of treating humanity,
and women in particular. But we also know it because
they structured their gospel accounts in ways which
challenge the discerning reader to catch the vision, es-
pecially with regard to gender relations.

At strategic points in his narrative, Mark places sto-
ries of women who practiced active faith (5:25-34; 7:25-

JESUS AND WOMEN 83

30) and self-denying service (12:41-44; 14:3-9) to con-
trast uncomprehending, faithless, self-seeking men (cf.
esp. 4:40; 8:21; 9:32; 9:33,34; 10:35-37; 13:1,2; 14:50).

It has long been recognized that Luke highlights
Jesus' interaction with women. In at least twelve places
Luke provides matching pairs of events, one involving a
man and one a woman. Sometimes the paired events
demonstrate that women and men are equal in their
standing before God, are equally gifted, and are equally
commissioned to serve. Sometimes they reveal women
as the primary models for divine-human encounters, en-
counters which were impossible with the less faithful
men around Jesus.

Recent writers have also pointed out that Luke's gos-
pel begins and ends with special divine commissionings
of women into ministry. God commissions a woman
(Jesus 1 mother) prior to Jesus' birth (Lk. 1:26-38), and
he commissions women subsequent to Jesus' resurrec-
tion (24:1-11). These commissionings stand parallel in
form to all the major commissionings for ministry in
Acts.

As already shown, John's gospel significantly high-
lights Jesus' interactions with women. The Samaritan
woman to whom Jesus reveals his messianic and divine
identity and who evangelizes her village, Mary who sits
at Jesus' feet and anoints him for burial, Martha who
responds to Jesus' word with a full confession of
Christian faith, Mary Magdalene (apostle to the apos-
tles) — all these stand as models for hearing the word of
God and doing it. If leadership is a function of creative
initiative and decisive action, the women who are de-
picted by John are well-qualified for the role.

The gospel writers do not ignore stories where men
model faithful discipleship, but they seem to highlight

84

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

those which feature women. It appears that the writers
took affirmative action, attempting to bring a measure
of balance in a world that favored men even more than
ours does. However, the final goal is not to replace the
male-oriented status quo with a feminist perspective.
The final goal is to see humanity with the vision of
Christ, a vision articulated so well by Paul in Galatians
3:28, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free,
male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus."
That is God's final will for his people, no matter how
long it takes before the vision is fully realized.

THE REALISM OF JESUS

The New Testament does not hold out the hope that
prior to God's final intervention to fully establish his
kingdom, the will of God will ever be fully practiced on
earth as it is in heaven. However, we must never forget
that the mandate for Christian behavior is never "what
people do." It is "what God calls them to do."

Jesus lived in the real world; and though he pre-
pared the soil for the full implementation of his king-
dom vision, he did not himself institute all the radical
changes that the implementation of that vision would
entail.

This is most clearly seen in Jesus' response to the
Jew/Gentile question. His vision was clearly the es-
tablishment of a kingdom in which racial barriers would
be eliminated, yet he limited his ministry almost ex-
clusively to Jews. He strongly criticized Jewish re-
ligious leaders for their prejudice against and exclusion
of Gentiles. He lessened the hold of Jewish ceremonial
laws which held Gentiles at a distance. He even pre-
pared the people for the abolition of Jewish food laws

JESUS AND WOMEN 85

(Mk. 7:19), but he did not directly evangelize Gentiles*
In fact, God did not initiate the Gentile mission even at
Pentecost. The destruction of Jew/Gentile barriers was
part of the kingdom vision Jesus died to achieve. But it
did not take effect right away. It happened within the
developing history of the church (see Acts 10-15).

Nor did Jesus fully implement his vision for the ab-
olition of social/economic discrimination. The abolition
of slavery was not even contemplated as an agenda
within first-century Christianity, but its eventual aboli-
tion was nonetheless an outcome of Christ's kingdom
vision.

Jesus' vision for the abolition of sexual dis-
crimination has also not been fully implemented. Some
Bible students maintain that Jesus appointed only men
to be his officially designated apostles because he in-
tended to uphold a divinely ordained, role-
differentiated, hierarchical "creation order," but a dif-
ferent explanation is more in keeping with Jesus' king-
dom vision.

He did not appoint women for the same reason that
he excluded Gentiles and slaves. The time was not ripe.
The soil had not been sufficiently prepared. Just as
Gentiles had to be "brought near through the blood of
Christ" (Eph. 2:13) before they could be prepared for
church ministries, so also women had to be called first
to sit at Jesus' feet before they could be prepared for
church ministries. Just as the church had to let Christ's
kingdom vision re-shape many inherited racial prej-
udices before Gentiles could be fully incorporated into
the church, so also the church must let Christ's kingdom
vision re-shape many inherited sexual prejudices before
women can be fully incorporated into church leadership.

86 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

THE CHALLENGE FOR TODAY

The challenge for today is to keep implementing the
vision of Galatians 3:28. Several decades passed before
the church understood that "neither Jew nor Greek"
meant Jews and Greeks could be equal partners within
the renewed humanity. Many centuries passed before
the church understood that "neither slave nor free"
meant that slavery could and should be abolished. We
do not know how long it will take until the church un-
derstands that "neither male nor female" means that
both genders are called equally to the ministries of the
church.

The New Testament was not designed to establish
limits in the implementation of the vision; it was de-
signed to provide models and mandates for its con-
tinuing implementation. Implementing the kingdom vi-
sion for the abolition of racial discrimination in the
church took place at different times and in different
ways in Jerusalem and in Antioch.

Implementing the kingdom vision for the abolition of
social/economic discrimination in the church also took
place in different ways in the first-century churches of
the Roman Empire and in the nineteenth-century
churches of the American southern states.

We should not be surprised if implementing the
kingdom vision for the abolition of sexual discrimination
in the church takes place differently in the twentieth
century than in the first, in predominately Muslim
countries than in modern Europe or North America, and
in rural communities than in urban settings.

Our world is diverse; our churches are diverse as
well. While we sometimes struggle with disagreements
and uncertainty, we must never lose sight of the radical

JESUS AND WOMEN 87

principles Jesus so clearly instituted in his own min-
istry. If we practice these principles, we will certainly
make progress in dealing with the sexual discrimination
still existing in the church. If we practice these prin-
ciples, the kingdom vision will become ever clearer and
we will be able to see more clearly the implications for
the ministry of women in the church.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Brown, R.E. "Roles of Women in the Fourth Gospel."
Blackfriars 52 (1971): 291- 299.

Evans, Mary E. Women in the Bible. InterVarsity, 1983.

Foh, Susan T. Women and the Word of God . Baker, 1979.

Malbon, E.S. "Fallible Followers: Women and Men in the
Gospel of Mark." Semeia 28 (1983): 29-48.

Sayers, Dorothy. Are Women Human ? InterVarsity, 1971.

Schneiders, S.M. "Women in the Fourth Gospel and the Role
of Women in the Contemporary Church." Biblical
Theology Bulletin 12 (1982): 35-45.

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE 7

Raymond O. Bystrom

Galatians 3:28 and Pauline Practice

A little church in a remote area had been without a
pastor for some time. Eventually, a daughter of the
congregation, who had prepared for the ministry, came
to serve the church as pastor. After seven years of min-
istry, she left for a larger church. Following her de-
parture, a young man was invited to candidate for the
vacant pastoral position by preaching a trial sermon.
While the people were filing out of church after the ser-
vice, a little girl was heard to say to her mother, "I
didn't know that men could be pastors, too!"

This quieting, or disquieting, tale makes it sound as
if it's no longer a man's world. The fact, however, is that
most contemporary Christian congregations are in favor
of keeping men dominant in church leadership roles.
But is male dominance in church leadership and min-
istry really Christian?

90 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Long ago, in a letter to the Christians of Galatia,
Paul proclaimed that "in Christ Jesus" there is "neither
. . . male nor female" (3:28). This is the most forthright
statement in the New Testament on the equality of
women with men before God. We read it and wish Paul
had paused to explain it. But he offers no farther com-
ment at this point. Everyone, however, who takes God's
Word seriously must ponder the meaning and implica-
tions of Paul's statement for congregational life. How is
it related to the corporate life of the church? What im-
plications does it have for women in ministry?

The crucial issue in this text in relation to the role of
women in church leadership is whether equality in
Christ refers to spiritual status before God only or also
to ministerial function in the body of Christ.

YOU ARE ALL ONE IN CHRIST JESUS

Paul's "neither male nor female" is located at the
conclusion of an argument about the sole condition for
full inclusion in the Christian community (2:15—3:25).
By faith in Christ Jesus both Jews and Gentiles are jus-
tified before God. By faith in Christ Jesus both Jews
and Gentiles receive the promised Holy Spirit and are
incorporated into Christ's community.

Beginning with 3:26 Paul spells out the con-
sequences of his argument for the Galatian Christians
by defining their status before God. He addresses them
directly. The shift is from "we" to "you," from law to
Christ, from exclusiveness to inclusiveness. Unity in
Christ is the dominant motif: "You are all sons of God"
and "you are all one in Christ Jesus." Jews and Gentiles
together constitute the people of God. Jewish Christians
no longer point to the law as the sign of their identity,

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE

91

but to Christ. All Christians, both Jewish and Gentile,
belong to Christ.

To make sure there is no misunderstanding, Paul
highlights several basic realities concerning the believ-
ers' status before God in Christ.

1. All believers are sons and daughters of God
through faith and through incorporation into Christ's
body (v. 26).

2. All believers are incorporated into Christ's body
by personal faith in Christ. Baptism is the outward and
visible sign of admission to God's new community (v.
27a).

3. All believers have undergone a spiritual trans-
formation that makes them Christians. They have
"clothed themselves with Christ" (v. 27b).

Then in three parallel statements in the present
tense, Paul announces the consequences of "putting on
Christ": "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free,
male nor female." In the third couplet, Paul asserts
that male and female have become one in Christ. The
statement declares that this unity is already a reality in
God's sight. Next Paul invites the Galatians to express
this new reality in the church and in society through a
new set of attitudes and reactions. When Jew and
Greek, slave and free, male and female, have "clothed
themselves with Christ," they are liberated from the di-
visions that separate them from one another.

Paul's statement here is widely regarded as the
Magna Carta of the New Humanity because it defines,
in a revolutionary manner, the nature of the Christian's
new relationship of oneness with other believers in
Christ's body. Ethnic, social and sexual relations have
been turned upside down in Christ. Old distinctions, old
divisions, old separations, have been canceled in Christ.

92

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

And since oneness in Christ is already a reality in the
sight of God, Christians must seek to express their
equality both inside and outside the church.

GREEK AND JEWISH
THANKSGIVING FORMULA

The revolutionary nature of Paul's words in
Galatians 3:28 can only be appreciated against the back-
drop of the status of women in the ancient world. It is
important to recall that Paul's threefold affirmation cor-
responds to both Jewish and Greek formulas where the
distinctions are retained.

In the Greco-Roman world the status of women is re-
flected in the popular prayer of Greek men. They
thanked the gods that they were born "a human being
and not a beast, next a man and not a woman, thirdly, a
Greek and not a barbarian." Admittedly, Greek lit-
erature often affirms the equality of women and men in
principle, but Greek society rarely achieved it in
practice.

In Jewish circles a similar thanksgiving formula was
commonly used. At the beginning of morning prayers,
the male Jew prayed: "Blessed be God that he did not
make me a Gentile; blessed be God that he did not make
me an ignorant peasant or slave; blessed be God that he
did not make me a woman."

The reason for this threefold thanksgiving by male
Jews was not blatant demeaning of Gentiles, slaves, or
women, but rather that these persons were restricted
from many religious privileges open to free Jewish
males. For example, a screen separated women from
men in the synagogues, symbolizing woman's restricted
role. Indeed, women were not normally allowed to par-

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE

93

ticipate in the actual service. Also, the study of the Law
was off-limits for women. A married woman's role was
essentially limited to homemaking. While exceptions
can be cited, nowhere in ancient Judaism was any real
effort made to practice, or even to propose, the social
and religious equality of the sexes.

In contrast to such statements that accent male su-
periority, Paul writes that in Christ "there is neither
Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female." Quite
likely Paul himself was raised to thank God that he was
not born a Gentile, a slave, or a woman. If so, he knew
that Galatians 3:28 deliberately contradicted each
phrase of his former prayer. Yet he unabashedly an-
nounces that in God's sight and in God's community na-
tional, social, and sexual privileges are abolished, "for
you are all one in Christ Jesus."

BAPTISMAL CONFESSION
OF THE EARLY CHURCH

Some of Paul's interpreters maintain that we should
not over-emphasize the third couplet of Galatians 3:28
("neither . . . male nor female"). After all, there are no
parallels to it elsewhere in the New Testament. Jesus
himself never said anything quite so explicit about the
equality of the sexes. Hence, these interpreters argue
that these words were merely a peculiar idea of Paul's,
not shared by others in the early church.

It is significant that in the larger passage under dis-
cussion (Gal. 3:26-29), we find Paul's only explicit refer-
ence to baptism in the entire letter. Galatians 3:28 is
part of an early Christian baptismal confession. Both
the structure and the content of the entire passage in-
dicate that these verses contain a fragment of a bap-

94 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

tismal confession of the early church that Paul uses to
support his argument in Galatians 3:1-25. One can leap-
frog from verse 26 to verse 29, omitting verses 27-28,
without sensing any break in Paul's logic or grammar.

It is also significant that the last clause of verse 28
("for you are all one in Christ Jesus") clearly parallels
verse 26 ("for you are all sons of God through faith in
Christ Jesus"), except for the Pauline phrase "through
faith." Thus, the "for" of verse 27 introduces an ex-
planatory statement in support of the affirmation of
verse 26. In other words, Paul is quoting verses 27-28 to
undergird his argument.

Note that only the first couplet in verse 28 ("there is
neither Jew nor Greek") is directly related to Paul's ar-
gument in Galatians. Paul has not mentioned the re-
lation of the sexes in arguing with the Judaizers at
Galatia. Yet in these verses he makes the strange state-
ment that in Christ there is "neither . . . male nor
female."

Notice too that the pairings of Galatians 3:28 are
found elsewhere in Paul's letters. "For we were all bap-
tized by one Spirit into one body — whether Jews or
Greeks, slaves or free — and we were all given the one
Spirit to drink" (1 Cor. 12:13). "Here there is no Greek
or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian,
Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all"
(Col. 3:11).

The pairings occur in either abbreviated
(Corinthians) or expanded forms (Colossians) but in the
same order (cf. 1 Cor. 7:17-20, 21-24, 25-28), suggesting
a degree of fixity in Paul's mind. Furthermore, the pair-
ings of Galatians 3:28 and 1 Corinthians 12:13 appear
explicitly in connection with baptism and those of
Colossians 3:11 are indirectly associated with baptism

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE

95

(2:12; 3:9-10). Yet baptism as a subject is not being dis-
cussed in either passage.

All of this suggests that these pairings were original-
ly formulated in a baptismal setting in the early church.
At some point in the baptismal ceremony, perhaps as
the newly-baptized Christians were extended the right-
hand of fellowship, an elder informed them of their stat-
us as "sons and daughters of God through faith in Jesus
Christ." Then he explained how their oneness in Christ
made the difference between Jew and Greek, slave and
free, male and female, irrelevant before God. In this
way, the early Christians celebrated in their baptismal
ceremony the marvelous truth that in Christ Jesus the
old racial, social, and sexual divisions had been healed.

When first-century Christians spoke of being "sons
and daughters of God," "baptized into Christ," and
"clothed with Christ" (3:26-27) they simultaneously
spoke of their faith in terms of a new social dynamic
within the faith community in which there was "neither
Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female." They
saw that the gospel called them to treat all people im-
partially and to express in daily life those attitudes and
actions that would eliminate barriers of prejudice and
inequality.

In short, Paul has "lifted" Galatians 3:27-28 from a
baptismal liturgy of the early church and used it to re-
mind the Galatians of words they had undoubtedly
heard before in the context of their own baptism and in-
corporation into the church. Indeed, on the occasion of
their baptism they agreed to live with one another in
community on the basis of their oneness in Christ. They
were now being reminded by Paul that in the re-
demption provided through Christ, God had eliminated
the divisions and inequalities between Jew and Greek,

96

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

slave and free, male and female. Thus, Paul asks the
Galatians, and by extension, the twentieth-century
church, "where is the evidence of your equality in Christ
in your corporate life?"

SEXUAL UNITY OR UNIFORMITY IN CHRIST?

After Paul states that "there is neither . . . male nor
female," he speaks of the fact that all who are in Christ
are "one." What sort of oneness or unity does Paul con-
template? What kind of inequality is abolished in
Christ?

Although the three groupings Paul mentions are not
exactly parallel in construction, they are to be inter-
preted in the same way. There is a change of construc-
tion in the third couplet. Most versions retain the "nei-
ther . . . male nor female" translation for the sake of
symmetry. Literally, however, Paul says: "no male and
female." The change is a reflection of the language of the
Greek translation of Genesis 1:27. However, the change
in construction does not change the meaning of the third
couplet in the series. Paul makes no distinction between
the three pairings.

So what happens to the racial, social, and sexual dif-
ferences between people? Paul does not mean that the
differences between race, rank, and sex no longer exist
in Christ. If Paul himself is taken as a model, one must
say that the differences between the categories remain.
Paul continues to reflect a Jewish identity and self-
awareness (Gal. 2:15; 2 Cor. 11:22; Phil. 3:5; Rom.
11:14), to treat Jews and Gentiles as distinct ethnic
units (Rom. 9-11), to address slaves, slave-owners, men
and women, as distinct groups. Therefore, the unity
which he declares is not one in which ethnic, social, and

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE 97

sexual distinctions disappear. Rather, it is a unity in
which the barriers and hostility between the three cat-
egories are destroyed. Unity does not require uni-
formity; male and female remain what they are.
Sexually specific differences are not denied for the sake
of some abstract equality. Indeed, Paul himself is not
really concerned with such abstractions; he is concerned
with the practical and everyday affairs of church life in
which men and women, like Jews and Gentiles, slaves
and free persons, are here and now sons and daughters
in God's community.

SPIRITUAL AND SOCIAL UNITY IN CHRIST

In the history of the Christian church there has been
a tendency to limit the degree to which "there is no male
and female." Many Christians have framed the new re-
ality and the new relations of Galatians 3:28 only in
spiritual terms. For example, it has been argued that
the words "no male and female" relate only to the com-
mon way men and women join the Christian community
through baptism.

There is little doubt that in all three pairings of
Galatians 3:28 Paul thought first in terms of the re-
lationship between God and humanity. When it comes
to the grounds of entry into the Christian community,
all are on equal footing before God. Fellowship between
God and humanity is no longer limited along national,
social, or sexual lines.

But Paul's proclamation is a message of equality
that has both spiritual and social dimensions. Indeed it
speaks with meaning to all three areas of life where the
Gospel had a particular social impact on first-century
Christians — national, social, and sexual.

98

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Paul speaks without qualification or reservations in
Galatians 3:28. He asserts that sexual differences that
divide and alienate male and female are suspended.
They are both nullified as conditions for salvation and
as social barriers between human beings. Not only are
religious advantages before God based on sexual dis-
tinctions eliminated, but sexually determined religious
roles within the Christian community are also broken.
Male dominance and preference is at an end.

Thus, when spelling out the new relationships which
are meant by God to exist in the church, Paul explicitly
says that in the same way that Jews are to have no ex-
clusive privileges over Gentiles and free persons to have
no exclusive advantages over slaves, so men are to have
no exclusive prerogatives over women.

According to the gospel which had seized the life and
mind of Paul, the status of Gentiles, slaves, and women
has been equalized with that of Jews, masters and
males within the Christian community. For Paul, all
three groups have equal standing before God spiritually
and within the church socially when "in Christ." It is ev-
ident from Pauls confrontation with Peter at Antioch
(Gal. 2:11-21) that Paul saw the social implications of
the equalizing of Jew and Gentile in Christ. Paul did not
say that Jews and Greeks are one in personal salvation,
but that in other respects, such as eating at social gath-
erings, things remain as they always have been with
Jews eating separately. To the contrary, he defended
the right of Gentiles to be present with Jews at social
gatherings and on an equal basis. He insisted on com-
plete social equality, for he believed that the new unity
in Christ is intended to shape the new life in the church.

It is also evident from Paul's dealing with Onesimus,
the runaway slave, that he had begun to grapple with

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE 99

the social implications of the equalizing of slave and free
person in Christ. Paul reluctantly returns Onesimus,
who has become a Christian, to his master Philemon.
Although Paul politely hints to Philemon that he should
set his slave free ("I could be bold and order you to do
what you ought to do," v. 8), he did not confront
Philemon on the slave issue like he did Peter on the is-
sue of Jews and Gentiles eating together. Instead, he ap-
peals to Philemon by writing a moving letter on the
equality that binds all persons who have been clothed in
Christ. Onesimus is "no longer a slave, but better than a
slave, a dear brother." Within the organic unity of the
church, slaves and owners are now brothers. Philemon
is to welcome Onesimus as if he were the apostle Paul
himself (v. 17). Thus, in his dealings with Onesimus,
Paul provides us with important clues to what the prac-
tice of the Christian community ought to be on the
slave/free person distinction.

In short, if the Jew/Gentile and slave/free person dis-
tinction is considered irrelevant within the church, then
the male/female distinction should also be considered
irrelevant.

PAUL'S APPLICATION OF SEXUAL EQUALITY
IN CHRIST

Paul's talk about sexual equality in Christ did not
simply remain a theory. Women played a significant
role in Pauls churches. He acted out the gospel principle
of sexual equality in Christ in a remarkable way for a
former rabbi.

Paul's greetings to his fellow workers in Romans 16
indicates something of his attitude toward women in the
church. The apostle greets by name no fewer than six

100 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

women, and all six are spoken of as having participated
in some form of Christian ministry. (See also Chapters
2, 10, 13.)

He begins the chapter by commending Phoebe (w. 1-
2), who is described as "our sister," that is, a member of
the Christian community. Also, she is called both a dea-
con (diakonos) and a helper/patron (prostatis). The word
diakonos was an official title of church leadership. It is
used in 1 Corinthians 3:5 and 2 Corinthians 3:6, 6:4,
11:15, and 23 to refer to missionaries, including Paul
himself. A deacon was a missionary entrusted with
preaching and tending churches. Phoebe clearly func-
tioned as a leader of the local churches in Cenchreae.
The second title associated with Phoebe confirms this
impression. She was also a "protectoress," or "patro-
ness." Recent research has shown that patronesses were
persons of high social standing and means with a house
large enough for the church to gather. Such women were
responsible for the ordering of the congregation in their
home and presiding over the celebration of the Lord's
Supper. Phoebe was such a significant person that Paul
instructed the Roman churches "to receive her in the
Lord as befits the saints, and help her in whatever she
may require from you." Such hosting instructions are
common in ancient literature. They ask people to "roll
out the red carpet" for important people. In other words,
Phoebe is to be received with the honor appropriate to
her position as a congregational leader.

After his commendation of Phoebe, Paul greets a
number of persons by name. Five are women, and all
five are spoken of as having participated in Christian
ministry. Prisca, or Priscilla, together with her husband
Aquila, is greeted first and identified as Paul's "fellow
workers in Christ Jesus." In the New Testament

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE 101

Prisca's name is more often than not placed before her
husband's. Perhaps she came from a higher social class
(a Jewess with Roman citizenship) than her husband or
maybe she was a more prominent worker in the church.

In addition to Prisca, Paul greets Mary, Tryphena,
Tryphosa and Persis. Each woman is commended for
having worked hard in the Lord. The emphasis on work-
ing is characteristic of Paul's remarks about each wom-
an whom he greets.

Paul considered women to be full members of the
Christian community. He does not speak of women in a
condescending or patronizing fashion. Indeed, one gets
the impression that he happily worked side by side with
a number of women in his various missionary travels
and saw them as partners and not subordinates.

Further evidence of Paxils practice of the principle of
no male and female in Christ may be seen in his ap-
preciation of the Philippian women who labored side by
side with him in the gospel (Phil. 4:2-3). Euodia and
Syntyche are described as "women who have contended
at my side in the cause of the gospel, along with
Clement and the rest of my fellow workers, whose
names are in the book of life." Quite likely we will never
know what these women actually did to merit Pauls
commendation. But it is self-evident from these refer-
ences that women worked alongside men in the Pauline
churches and did so with Paul's unqualified approval.

As one student of Paul explains, "No more restriction
is implied in Paul's equalizing of the status of male and
female in Christ than in his equalizing of the status of
Jew and Gentile, or slave and free person. ... If a
Gentile may exercise spiritual leadership in church as
freely as a Jew, or a slave as freely as a citizen, why not
a woman as freely as a man?"

102 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CHRISTIAN
COMMUNITY TODAY

Paul deserves an accolade for his efforts to apply the
gospel principles of freedom and equality to the situa-
tions of his day. He set a pattern and marked out a path
for subsequent Christian generations to follow both in
thought and action.

No one doubts that the lifestyle of the church must
be consistent with the gospel of the church.
Proclamation must lead to demonstration of the gospel
principles in the here and now. And since Paul intends
his message of male and female equality in Christ to be
understood both spiritually and socially, how can we
welcome women to the ministry but restrict their func-
tions? Isn't the issue one of either keeping women from
the ministry entirely or opening all its functions to
them?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Betz, H.D. Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the
Churches in Galatia . Fortress, 1979.

Bruce, F.F. Commentary on Galatians . NIGTC. Eerdmans,
1982.

Hurley, J.B. Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective .
Academie Books, 1981.

Longenecker, R.N. New Testament Social Ethics for Today .
Eerdmans, 1984.

NEITHER MALE NOR FEMALE

103

Snodgrass, K. "Galatians 3:28 — Connundrum or Solution?"
Women. Authority and the Bible . A. Michelsen, ed.
InterVarsity Press, 1986: 161-180.

Terrien, S. Till the Heart Sings: A Biblical Theology of
Manhood and Womanhood . Fortress, 1985: 159-174.

Witherington, B. "Rite and Rights for Women." New
Testament Studies 27 (1981): 593-604.

COVERED AND QUIET? 8

Katrina Poetker

Women in the Corinthian Church:
1 Corinthians 1L2-16; 14:34-36

A young woman stood at the back of the church with a
child, trying to keep her quiet while listening to the ser-
vice. She and her husband had driven 50 miles to
bring a mission message in a rural church. As she
quieted her daughter, the outside door opened and a
family walked in. They were late, but what made them
stand out among the other worshipers was that the
mother wore a piece of cloth on her head, covering her
hair — a rare practice in the churches of the area.

Following the service, the two couples struck up a con-
versation. "I'm interested in your head covering," the
missionary said. "What does it mean to you?" The
woman proceeded to explain that she had recently
started to wear it after being convinced that this was
the true meaning ofl Corinthians 11.

106 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

"Does it also signify an authority structure placing you
under your husband?" she was asked. Ties, it does,"
she answered smiling.

Most of us can accept a woman's choice to wear a
headcovering. In fact, it wasn't too many years ago that
nearly all women wore hats on Sunday morning — more
as a matter of fashion, perhaps, than as a sign of au-
thority. But while we are comfortable with a woman's
choice to wear a headcovering (something our churches
do not regularly practice), we are not as comfortable
with some women's desire to publicly minister in the
church.

Are there God-ordained levels of authority which do
not permit female leadership in the church? Two pas-
sages which bear careful study are 1 Corinthians 11:2-
16 and 14:34-36. They are most often used to place re-
strictions on women, but a close study of the passages
may indicate a wider acceptance of women in public
ministry.

THE CONTEXT

In 1 Corinthians 7:1-16:12 Paul responds to issues
raised in a letter from the churches of Corinth. Chapter
7 discusses questions about marriage, Chapters 8 — 9
problems of meat offered to idols, and Chapters 11 — 14
problems in Christian worship. The last section,
Chapters 11 — 14, address two problems in an ABA par-
allel structure:

A Prayer and prophecy, 11:2-16

B. The Lord's Supper, 11:17-34
A Prayer and prophecy, 12:1 — 14:40.

COVERED AND QUIET? 107

The context is clearly the public gatherings of the
Christian community. The first text unit and one of the
last concern the role of women in these gatherings.

LET HER HEAD BE COVERED (1 Cor. 11:2-16)

The text in 1 Corinthians 11 is a discussion about
men and women praying and prophesying, about their
heads, and about the covering of their heads. The pas-
sage is difficult because we no longer understand some
of the terms and the customs referred too.

For example, we do not really know what Paul
meant when he referred to the covering of the head
while praying and prophesying in Corinth. It may be
that Paul was referring to some sort of external head-
covering. Jewish women appeared in public only with
their heads covered. The evidence for Greek women is
less certain. Greek religious practices of that time in-
cluded cultic drunkenness, sexual license and improper
dress, all problems which spilled over into the
Corinthian church. Sex reversal (wearing the clothing or
hairstyle of the opposite sex) also took place. An un-
covered or a shaven head for a woman or long hair for a
man was considered a sexual inversion. In places where
a headcovering was worn, it served as a symbol of fe-
male identity.

Or, Paul may have been referring to a hairstyle, rec-
ommending that hair be bound instead of worn in free-
flowing style. In a Jewish context free-flowing hair was
a sign of sexual availability and infidelity. In pagan set-
tings it may have had the same meaning, but it was also
associated with the ecstatic female worship of oriental
gods. Wearing the hair on the head symbolized marital
faithfulness and dignity in worship.

108 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Given these options, what did the exhortation about
headcoverings for women in public worship mean for the
Corinthian Christians? A closer look at our text helps us
sort out these possibilities.

The text is structured on an ABA pattern:

A Sexual distinctions are rooted in creation and
Christian worship must reflect them (w. 3-10)

B. Sexual equality is rooted in redemption, and
creation seen in its light, but sexual dis-
tinctions are not transcended (w. 11-12)

A Sexual distinctions are rooted in the nature of things
and Christian worship must reflect this (w. 13-15)

Covering the Head

The passage begins with three references to "head"
in verse 3. Some have understood this verse to outline a
structure of authority, a "chain of command," but this is
unlikely.

The Greek word kephale, translated as "head," most
frequently means "source" or "origin." A secondary
meaning is "chier or "person of authority," but this
meaning is rarely used. The creation references and the
context of the passage stress relatedness rather than an
order of authority.

The passage is a commentary on Genesis 2: "The
head of every man is Christ, the head of woman is the
man, and the head of Christ is God." The theological ba-
sis for the statement is given later in verse 8: "man is
not made from woman, but woman from man." The ref-
erence is the creation of woman from man, i.e., the rib
(Gen. 2:21-22). The "head" here clearly refers to source.
In the ancient world origin determined purpose.

COVERED AND QUIET? 109

Therefore, Paxil goes on to say later, "neither was man
created for woman, but woman for man,"

The three phrases also are in the wrong order to con-
vey a structure of authority. A logical approach for ex-
pressing authority would have begun with God, followed
by Christ, man, and finally woman. Gilbert Bilezikian
points out that the order here expresses a chronolog-
ical sequence in which Christ was the source of life at
creation (Col. 1:16), woman was created from man (Gen.
2), and God was the source of Christ's life. The empha-
sis is on relatedness, not authority.

We can discern from Paul's letter that after be-
coming Christians, the Corinthians began to view the
distinctions between male and female as no longer im-
portant because they had already become as the angels
and were thus beyond human sexuality. To combat this
misperception, Paul argues for the importance of ho-
liness and faithfulness in all aspects of life, including
the physical (1 Cor. 7 argues this for marriage, Ch. 11
for the importance of sexual differentiation, and Ch. 15
for the reality of a bodily resurrection). The significance
of the "headcoveringf is its affirmation of distinctive sex-
ual identity.

A further clue to this understanding is Paxils use of
the word "shame." The word carries a sense of public
disgrace, of humiliation in front of others. Paxil uses the
same word in 11:22 to say that the poor were being hu-
miliated at the Lord's Supper. It seems clear from his
writing that the covering and uncovering of mens and
women's heads delivered a message of shame to the sur-
rounding culture. The believer's behavior had the po-
tential to bring shame to the church and the gospel by
associating the church with the pagan practices men-

110

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

tioned earlier. The headcovering was a matter of re-
taining sexual identity and commitment to marriage.

Praying and Prophesying

Paul's reference to women praying and prophesying
(v. 5) means women participated in and led corporate
worship. In the Old Testament, prophecy was the re-
ception and declaration of divine revelation. The sig-
nificance of the prophetic function is similar in the New
Testament. The purpose of prophecy, whether by men or
women, is the strengthening, encouragement, and com-
fort of the people. It is a gift which edifies the church
(14:3-4).

Women such as Miriam and Deborah shared the pro-
phetic gift with men in the Old Testament (see Ch. 3).
Similarly, women participated in the outpouring of the
Spirit at Pentecost, spoke in tongues, and received the
gift of prophecy (Acts 1:14; 2:1-4, 17-21). In the chapters
concerning spiritual gifts there is no indication that cer-
tain gifts are restricted to men (Rom. 12, 1 Cor. 12 — 14).
All the gifts are given as the Spirit wills. In fact, Paul's
list of the spiritual gifts indicates that prophecy is one of
the three higher gifts, and is to be desired more than the
other gifts (1 Cor. 12:28-31; 14:1).

Creation and Glory

Paul provides a framework for interpreting the prac-
tice of headcovering in verses 7-12. He places cor-
responding thoughts in reverse sequence to each other.
Verses 7-9 form the first part, verse 10 the center of the
pattern, and then verses 11 and 12 correspond to 8 and
9 in reverse order. The following illustrates this
relationship:

COVERED AND QUIET? Ill

A. Source of creation (v. 8)

B. Relationship in creation (v. 9)
C. Authority (v. 10)

B. Relationship in the Lord (v. 11)
A. Source in God (v. 12).

The reason a woman should wear a headcovering,
and the man should not is that "the man is the image
and glory of God" and "woman is the glory of man" (v. 7).
Paul describes man as "the image and glory of God." He
does not say that woman is not the image of God. That
would contradict Genesis 1:27. What Paul says is that
she is man's glory. How should we understand this
phrase?

The word "glory" can refer to brightness and splen-
dor, but also to fame, honor, and a good reputation. The
latter use provides a direct contrast to the "shame" men-
tioned in verses 4-6. "Glory" means that the existence of
one brings glory and honor to the other. Remember
Adam's response in Genesis 2 when he saw Eve for the
first time? He "gloried" in her.

Paul goes on to explain this understanding of glory
in verses 8-9 by referring to Genesis 1:26-27 and 2:18-
23. He emphasizes the differentness of the sexes in crea-
tion. In Genesis 2 woman is formed from the body of a
man and for the sake of the man, confirming the
"source" meaning of "head" in verse 3. He is her origin.
She is his glory in that her existence brings honor and
praise to the man. The man is not, however, her maker.
The formation of woman from man does not imply an
authority structure any more than man's formation
from the dust implies his subordination to the earth.
Instead, woman is the completion of God's creation, the
perfect partner for man. She is his glory.

112 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Creation differentiates the sexes. Men and women
are different because of the design of the Creator. "On
account of this," Paul states in verse 10, "a woman is ob-
ligated to have authority upon the head." The meaning
of "authority" (exousia) is a central issue in the passage.
One translation states that the woman should have a
"sign of authority" on her head to indicate that she is
under the authority of man. But the text, translated
very literally above, does not say that. Furthermore, no-
where in the New Testament or Greek literature does
the form of the word here mean that one should be un-
der the authority of another. "Authority" carries its nor-
mal sense — the woman's right to choose.

But what does the woman have authority over? The
text says that the woman ought to have authority over
her head. She has authority over her physical head,
meaning that she can do as she wishes in regard to
headcovering. This is supported by verse 13, where Paul
appeals to the Corinthians to judge for themselves on
this matter. Similarly, in Chapter 9 Paul uses the same
word (authority) when he writes about his right to have
support from the church, even though he did not use
this authority (9:12, 19-23). In the same way, Paul
states that a woman has authority over her head, but
that authority should be used in the best interests of the
church and the gospel. In the Corinthian situation, this
meant that she should cover her head. Women should
wear a headcovering as a sign of their femaleness. To
wear a headcovering meant to accept one's created
sexuality.

The concluding phrase in verse 10, "because of the
angels," is puzzling. Many interpretations have been of-
fered but a definite conclusion is impossible. Apparently

COVERED AND QUIET? 113

there was a common understanding between Paul and
the Corinthians which he leaves unspoken.

Woman and Man in Christ

In verses 11 and 12 Paul points to the principle of in-
terdependence. Neither women nor men are in-
dependent of each other. Paul's phrase, "in the Lord," is
very important. Paul contrasts the relationship of men
and women in creation with that of the new creation. In
creation woman was created from man. In the Lord,
however, there is a new relation between men and wom-
en. They are mutually interdependent as Galatians 3:28
states. Sexual distinctions remain, but men and women
are equal in redemption. Men and women are both dif-
ferent and equal. Created differences and redemptive
equality are divine gifts. Therefore, creation is not can-
celed out by redemption. These two verses can be seen
as the climax of this section, pointing towards the way
women and men relate to each other in God's kingdom.

Two More Arguments

Paul returns to his original concern regarding wom-
en covering their heads at the close of the passage, w.
13-16. He uses two arguments to support the practice.
First, sexual distinctions are rooted in nature. "Nature"
teaches the appropriateness of a headcovering (w. 14-
15). Certain things were symbols of femaleness and
maleness in Pauls world. They distinguished the sexes.
Among the signs of femaleness was long hair.

Paul's second argument is the practice in other
churches (v. 16). Women kept their heads covered dur-
ing worship in the Pauline churches to affirm their fe-
male sexuality. For the Corinthian women to remove

114 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

the headcovering would signify disagreement with the
larger church.

Summary

The problem Paul addresses in Chapter 11 is that
some Corinthian women were praying and prophesying
in public worship without headcoverings. Paul rejects
any female participation in community worship which
did not involve the wearing of a headcovering. He
grounds his stance in three arguments: (1) creation dif-
ferentiates the sexes; (2) nature differentiates the sexes;
(3) the practice in the Pauline churches differentiates
the sexes.

The theological issue, as Paul defines it, is whether
redemption (salvation and freedom in Christ) cancels
out creation (human sexuality), or whether creation and
redemption are not interdependent. Some Corinthian
women acted as though redemption freed them from
their created sexuality.

Throughout the passage Paul stresses the re-
latedness of man and woman, and the implications of
this for participation in corporate worship. Paul argues
that redemption (Christian equality) enhances creation
(sexual differentiation). He wants women to cover their
heads when praying or prophesying in order to correct
those who claimed that women had gone beyond sexual
identity. The headcovering was to symbolize their sex-
ual identity as women and their faithfulness to their
marriages.

Paul also describes the creation of woman from and
for man — the completion of man in woman. While wom-
en have authority to choose their own headcovering, in
the Lord women and men were to exercise mutual coop-
eration and interdependence.

COVERED AND QUIET? 115

Paul does not aim to silence women in Christian
worship in Chapter 11 or to subordinate them to men,
but to guarantee that their worship roles and leadership
gives expression to who they are as women.

LET HER BE SILENT (1 Cor. 14:34-35)

The second passage, 1 Corinthians 14:34-35, seems
to contradict 1 Corinthians 11:5. These verses appear to
contend for the complete silence of women in the church.

Verses 34-35 can be interpreted in a number of
ways. Some see them as a further restriction to 11:2-16
on women speaking in church. Others maintain that
these verses were not written by Paul but were a later
scribal addition since one group of ancient manuscripts
place verses 34-35 at the end of the chapter. A third in-
terpretation argues that the verses are a quotation from
the opposition, or a restatement of the Corinthians'
view, perhaps of one party within the church. (V. 36 be-
gins with a small Greek word which is usually left un-
translated in our English Bibles. This word can mean
"what," indicating that the negative questions which fol-
low refute the preceding sentences. In this inter-
pretation Paul answers the opposition in v. 36 by saying
"What! Did the word of God originate with you, or are
you the only one it has reached?" The content of w. 34
and 35 is then emphatically denied by Paul in v. 36.)
Finally, the verses can be read in their larger context — a
series of instructions regarding behavior in public meet-
ings (1 Cor. 14:26-40). The following interpretation is
based on the assumption that Paul wrote these words,
that they form part of his general instructions, and that
they do not contradict Chapter 11.

116 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Instructions for Worship

Paul gives a series of general instructions in verses
26-40 with three specific instructions concerning
tongues (w. 27-28), prophecy (w. 29-33), and married
women in the congregation (w. 34-36). Each of these in-
structions is similar, addressing a situation in the
Corinthians 1 public meetings. Paxil's main concern is or-
derly behavior during their meetings. His reason for
these directives is to show that God is not a God of dis-
order but of peace, as in all the churches of the saints (v.
33).

To better understand this passage, we need to de-
termine the meaning of three important words in the
following phrases: "Let them be silent" "let them be
subject" and "to speak"

The Greek word translated "silent" is found twice in
verses 28 and 30. It does not refer to absolute silence, or
non-participation, but to self-control. Again, Paxil's chief
concern is the orderly, Spirit-led behavior of men and
women in worship gatherings.

The Greek word for "subject" may mean to be iden-
tified with, to come under the influence of, or to be
joined to something or someone. The form in which it
appears indicates that the person is to control him or
herself. A similar meaning of the word is found in verse
32, where the prophets are to "control" their own spirits.
A literal translation would read, "let them control them-
selves, as the law also says."

The word "speak" can refer to uncontrolled, dis-
ruptive speech. Verse 35 implies that the problem ad-
dressed was married women asking questions during
the meeting. Paul encouraged them to ask their hus-
bands at home instead of during the meeting. It is in-
teresting to note the important contrast these verses

COVERED AND QUIET? 117

provide to the common understanding of marriage at
the time. The Corinthian Christians lived in a culture
in which husbands and wives seldom conversed or spent
time together. Clearly, the relationship between
Christian spouses was to be more intimate.

What Were the Women Doing?

Again, just as in Paul's instructions about head-
coverings, we cannot be sure of the precise situation.
Was Paul restricting some kind of inspired speech other
than prophecy, perhaps tongues itself? Nothing in the
letter indicates such a restriction. Were women dis-
rupting the church's meetings with some form of ecstatic
behavior and speech, or by asking their husbands ques-
tions from across the room? This seems more likely con-
sidering the surrounding Greek religious practices and
the exhortation to ask questions at home.

It is also unclear precisely which law they were
breaking. Nowhere else does Paul refer to "law" in the
way he does here. There is no law prohibiting women
from speaking in the Old Testament, not even in rabbin-
ic interpretation. "The law" probably refers to Greek and
Roman civil laws which had been established to curb the
cultic excesses of women. The reference then reinforces
Paul's concern that the behavior of the Corinthian wom-
en should be above reproach.

CONCLUSION

The two Corinthian passages we have studied pro-
vide significant insights for questions regarding the role
of women in the church. Chapter 11 clearly indicates
that Paul recognized women's involvement and lead-
ership in the church as women. His only concern is that

118 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

women be women, that they retain their sexual identity
in leadership. Both texts teach the importance of main-
taining distinctions between men and women. The pas-
sages teach the compatibility and mutual inter-
dependence of men and women in God's kingdom, and
emphasize the importance of maintaining family and
marriage commitments while involved in Christian
worship.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . Baker, 1985.

Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians .
Eerdmans, 1987.

Fiorenza, Elizabeth Schluesser. In Memory of Her .
Crossroads, 1984.

Flanagan, Neal M. and Snyder, Edwin Hunter. "Did Paul Put
Down Women in 1 Cor. 14.34-36? " Biblical Theology
Bulletin 11 (1981): 10-12.

Kroeger, Richard, and Kroeger, Catherine Clark.

"Pandemonium and Silence at Corinth." Reformed
Journal 28 (1978): 6-11.

, "Sexual Identity in Corinth: Paul Faces a Crisis."

Reformed Journal 28 (1978): 11-15.

Mercadante, Linda. "From Hierarchy to Equality: A

Comparison of Past and Present Interpretations of 1 Cor.
11.2-16 in Relation to the Changing Status of Women in
Society." Master of Christian Studies Thesis. Regent
College, Vancouver, 1978.

COVERED AND QUIET? 119

Michelson, Alvera, ed. Women, Authority and the Bible .
InterVarsity, 1986.

Odell-Scott, David W. "Let the Women Speak in Church: an
Egalitarian Interpretation of 1 Corinthians 14.33b-36. w
Biblical Theology Bulletin 13 (1983): 90-93.

Talbert, Charles H. Reading Corinthians . Crossroad, 1987.

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THE HUSBAND IS THE
HEAD OF THE WIFE

9

John E. Toews

The Husband and Wife Relation:
Ephesians 5:21-33

Several passages were read rather regularly in family
devotions. Ephesians 5:21-33 was one of them. As the
boys in the family grew older they recognized that the
marital model of their parents was a democratic one.
They began to wonder what happened when their par-
ents could not reach consensus. Finally one of the boys
asked the parents. "Well," the mother replied, "I dont
recall that the issue has ever really come up." "Oh yes
it has," the father said. 'You remember the time we
couldn't agree and I had to break the tie?"

The father explained to the boys how these things work
among well-married Christian people. The normal
rhythm of marriage, he observed, is one of full equality
and mutual submission. "We submit to each other; it's
a sign that we have the Spirit of Christ." In some areas

122 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

the husband submits to the wife's superiority of judg-
ment and expertise, and in others she submits to his.
Neither worries that the other will take advantage.

But then one day a real disagreement arises. Each
tries to submit to the other. So the husband says,
"Dear, well do it your way." "Oh no," she responds,
"you're right and we'll follow your lead." They are
deadlocked. Finally, the husband stands up to his full
height, and says. "Look, for once in our marriage I'm
going to have to invoke the headship principle and
break the tie. You are right, we're going to do it your
way, and I don't want to hear another word about it."

"That's the kind of tie I had to break once," the father
concluded.

Why a study of Ephesians 5:21-33 in a book on wom-
en in ministry? The text concerns the relationship be-
tween husband and wife in the family. It does not speak
to questions of church leadership.

This passage is studied for two reasons. First, it says
the husband is the head of the wife. This "headship" lan-
guage is often read to mean that women are inferior and
subservient. And this interpretation then has been ap-
plied to women in the church; women are to be sub-
ordinate to men in the church. Secondly, evangelicals
are divided on how to understand this text. Does the
text advocate equal or unequal relationships in
marriage?

TWO VIEWS

View One: Women Are to Be Subordinate

Evangelical theologians S.B. Clark and J.B. Hurley
state that this text teaches hierarchical relationships.
Its focus is the order between husband and wife. The

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

123

wife is to submit to her husband. The text does not
teach mutual submission, they argue. Only one person
is exhorted to subordination, and that person is the
wife. The phrase "to one another" means to the superior
person and not mutually. This subordination involves
the obedience of the wife to the husband "in everything,"
meaning in every area of the wife's life. The purpose of
her subordination is unity in the family, as between
Christ and the church.

The wife's exhortation to submission is framed by
"because you fear Christ" (v. 21) and "as to the Lord" (v.
22). The teaching is not based on human authority, but
has the authority of the Lord. "The fear of Christ" cor-
responds to the "fear of God" in the Old Testament. It is
a fear that produces obedience and an attitude of sub-
mission. The wife's relation to Christ shapes her sub-
ordination to her husband. She should act toward her
husband as she would to Christ. The husband has au-
thority over his wife because Christ delegated it. When
the wife submits to her husband, she is obeying Christ.

The husband is exhorted to love his wife with a "ser-
vice-love" like Christ has for the church. This love
makes her subordination easier.

The exhortation to submission is grounded in the
head/body relationship. The husband is the head of the
wife. "Headship" means a governing and representative
function. The wife must be completely under the author-
ity of her husband.

View Two: Mutual Submission

Wheaton College's Gilbert Bilezikian offers a quite
different interpretation. The point of the text is mutual
submission. Submission is defined by "to one another."
The qualification rules out hierarchical relations, for to

124 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

be "subject to one another" is only possible among
equals. Subjection is a vertical relation between ruler
and subject, but mutual submission is a horizontal re-
lation between equals.

The instruction to the wife is introduced by the ex-
hortation to mutual submission in verse 21. Verse 22
does not have a verb, and so is nonsensical if the mean-
ing of verse 21 does not control it. The entire passage
concludes with a quotation from Genesis 2:24 (w. 31-
32), which speaks about the husband and wife becoming
one flesh. Furthermore, because Christ is the model of
mutual submission, "as to the Lord" means the wife is to
commit herself to her husband in the same way she
commits herself to Christ. Her devotion and loving ser-
vice to Christ and to her husband have the same
quality.

"Headship" in this interpretation means source, not
ruler. The husband is the source of the wife's life, not
her ruler. Therefore, the wife is never commanded to
obey the husband, and the husband is never com-
manded to exercise authority over his wife.

The husband is to love the wife. The demands on the
husband are more stringent and exhaustive than on the
wife. It is impossible to love without submitting. The na-
ture of the husbands loving submission is defined by
the example of Christ as servant on the cross.

Is a Resolution Possible?

The two interpretations highlight the issue. What is
the meaning of "headship" and "submission" language?
Does the text teach that husbands are over their wives
or that both are equal? Are wives to submit to hus-
bands, or are wives and husbands mutually submissive
to each other?

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

125

THE LANGUAGE OF EPHESIANS 5:21-33

The two critical terms in the text are "headship" and
"submission." "Headship" (kephale) has two possible
meanings. First, as a biological term, it denotes source
or origin. Secondly, as a political word it means author-
ity or leader. It can mean either. Therefore, the meaning
of the word in any given text is determined by the con-
text. Most scholars agree that in 1 Corinthians 11
"headship" means "source" or "origin" (see Ch. 8). The
creation account states that woman was created from
man, man was born from woman. Man as the head of
woman means he is the source of her life just as she is
the source of his life. Headship in 1 Corinthians 11 is
not a power term, but a descriptive word denoting origin
or source.

The context in Ephesians must also determine the
meaning of headship. The term is used in three texts:
1:22, 4:15 and 5:23. In 1:22 Christ is made the head of
all things for the church. Christ is made the prime min-
ister (to sit at the right hand means to be made the
prime minister in the ancient world) of the cosmos for
the church. Headship is a power or authority term here.
Christians grow into Christ as the head (4:15). Christ as
the prime minister expresses his rule in the world by
distributing gifts. Church leaders are to enable the
many and different gifts to function in unity. The pur-
pose is to build up the body of Christ to the fullness of
Christ. Headship again is leader language, and thus a
power term. In 5:23 the husband is defined as the head
of the wife. Most "traditional" interpreters read "head"
as a power term here. "Liberationist" interpreters read
it as source language. I see it as a political word that
means power or authority because of its other uses in

126 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Ephesians. The meaning of this power language, how-
ever, is radically re-defined by the example of Christ, a
point that is missed if headship is defined as source.

The word "submission" (hypotasso) is a military term
that means to order or arrange properly. It is concerned
with the right "lining up" or alignment of troops for bat-
tle. Troops that are properly "lined up" or "ordered" are
said to be "in submission." They are ready to function as
a unit in battle. Similarly, a wife who submits is lined
up, ready to function as a unit with her husband.

THE LITERARY CONTEXT OF
EPHESIANS 5:21-33

Ephesians 4:17—6:9 exhorts Christians to live in
contrast to the lifestyle of the world. Paul warns against
a relapse into pagan conduct. The church is to show a
striking unlikeness to immoral paganism. To help the
church achieve this goal, Paul outlines the ethical stan-
dards that are to characterize the church. The first sec-
tion, 4:17 — 5:20, describes the difference between
Christianity and paganism: truth/falsehood, light/
darkness, saintliness/immorality, wisdom/folly, spirit/
devil, etc. The point is that there are two distinct peo-
ples living in the world, each with its own ethic. The
church is to walk in the truth, light, wisdom and spirit
of Christ. Ephesians 5:21 — -6:9 discusses the meaning of
the Christian walk for household relationships. The hus-
band/wife relationship is the first addressed in 5:21-33.
The question is whether Messiah Jesus and the com-
munity of the church in any way influence the lives of
men and women in their most intimate and critical
relationship.

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

127

STRUCTURE OF EPHESIANS 5:21-31

The text begins and ends with a concern for rever-
ence and respect. Verse 21 asks wives to show reverence
for Christ; verse 33 to show reverence for their hus-
bands. This is a literary technique which says that the
passage is concerned with issues of reverence and re-
spect. The second mention of respect for the husband is
clearly dependent on the first, respect for Christ. So the
point of 5:21-33 is reverence and respect in the
household.

Secondly, the text begins and ends with exhortations
supported by a single motivation — Christ. Reverence for
Christ is the motivation for mutual submission (v. 21).
Christ's headship of the church is the standard of the
wife's submission to her husband (w. 22-24). The
Messiahs love is the ground and measure of the hus-
band's love for his wife (v. 25a). The unity of Christ with
his body is the basis for the husband's love of his wife as
himself (w. 28-30). Paul says nothing about the re-
lationship of the two partners in marriage unless he can
show a messianic and churchly basis. Paul's intention is
to show that Christ and the church give husband and
wife the basis and example to live in that peace to which
God has called them. The peace between human and hu-
man, and between God and human, which Paul de-
scribed in Chapter 2, shall be extended to the conduct of
husband and wife.

Thirdly, it is important to note that Paul directs
commands only to husbands, not to wives. The only true
commands appear in verses 25 and 33; husbands are
commanded to love their wives. Wives are not com-
manded to submit to their husbands; they are invited to
do so.

128 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Verse 21 — Mutual Submission

The passage is introduced by an exhortation to mu-
tual subordination. Literally the sentence begins, "being
continuously subordinate." Pauls concern is that wives
and husbands be properly ordered, that they be mutual-
ly "ordering under." The translation of "being continu-
ously subordinate" as a command to "be submissive" is
alien to the sense and intent of the verb. It appeals to
free and responsible people to heed voluntarily, not by
the breaking of the will.

The object of the verbal phrase "being subordinate"
is the phrase "to one another." The "ordering under" is
to be in relationship to one another. "Being subordinate"
does not refer to the ordering of an inferior to a superior,
which is the normal use of the word, but an ordering of
relationships between equals.

The context for this mutual ordering is "in the rever-
ence of Christ," literally, "in the fear of Christ." This is
the only use of the phrase "in the fear of Christ" in the
New Testament. It carries the Old Testament sense of
the "fear of God." God is feared when revealed in mighty
deeds of salvation for Israel. Their appropriate reaction
is awe before majesty, rejoicing over victory, and fear be-
fore mighty power. In Deuteronomy "the fear of the
Lord" and "love" are used as synonyms. Both the fear of
God and the love of God mean to live faithfully ac-
cording to God's covenant and law. Husbands and wives
are exhorted to subordinate themselves voluntarily to
each other out of a profound sense of faithfulness to
Christ.

The point of the text is silenced whenever the dom-
inating position of the request to "be continuously sub-
ordinate to one another" over the entire unit is ne-
glected. The issue is not ordering by rank but the

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

129

mutual ordering of equals in intimate relationship with
Christ and each other in a marriage relationship.

Verses 22-24 — The Mutual Subordination of the
Wife

Verse 22 does not have a verb; it reads literally "the
wives to their own husbands as to the Lord." The phrase
is dependent on the "being subordinate" verb of verse
21. The first example of mutual subordination is the
wife. The wife is asked to subordinate herself voluntari-
ly to her husband within the framework of mutual sub-
ordination. She is treated as a person responsible for
her own ethical decisions and is called to take a stance.
This is a very revolutionary development in ancient eth-
ics. Wives generally were not recognized as ethical de-
cision-makers independent of their husbands, but as
subordinates to be commanded to action by their hus-
bands without the involvement of their will.

The object of the women's subordination is not men
in general, but "their own husbands." Verse 22 does not
say that women are inferior to men. Paxil is discussing
only the special relationship between husband and wife.
Paul is announcing a drastic restriction of women's sub-
ordination; it is due only to "their own husbands" just as
the husband's marital love is due only to his wife (w.
25, 28, 33). Furthermore, Paul does not use the word
"obey" or "serve" to describe the wife's relationship to
her husband, but "ordering under." She is a person who
stands on the same level with her husband and is able
to make her own decisions.

The motivation for the wife's mutual subordination
is "as to the Lord." A wife's commitment to order herself
under her husband should be of the same quality as her
commitment to Christ. The parallel text in Colossians

130 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

3:18 makes this even more explicit: "Wives, be subject to
your husbands, as is fitting in the Lord." Paul does not
refer to nature, to general standards of decency, to the
law, or to the Fall for the ground of his exhortation.
Only Jesus is the source, standard, and motivation for a
wife's "ordering under." That also means that Jesus is
the limit and reward of a positive decision to be mutual-
ly subordinate.

Verse 23 provides the rationale for the wife's sub-
mission. It is rooted in redemption, in Christ as the
head of the church. The husband is the head of the wife,
meaning the head as leader or authority. But the hus-
band is not the absolute authority over the wife. He is
the head "as Christ." Christ is the original model of
headship. Christ is the model, the measure, and the lim-
it of the husband's headship over the wife. Thus, a very
qualified headship is attributed to the husband. Christ
is made the head of the church "for the church" (1:22)
and as the Savior of the church (v. 23). He proves him-
self the head by saving. The Christ/church relation is
the model of the husband's headship.

Verse 24 reverses the role-model example. The
church/Christ relation is the model of the wife's sub-
ordination. Just as the church chooses to "order itself
under" Christ, so the wife chooses to be subordinate to
her husband.

The nature of mutual subordination for the wife is
startling. Wives are not commanded to obey their hus-
bands or to submit to the authority of their husbands.
Wives are not ordered to "be subordinate" to men or to
their own husbands. Wives are invited to choose sub-
ordination. Furthermore, the call to subordination is
qualified at least three times: (1) the opening call for mu-
tual subordination; (2) the limitation of subordination to

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

131

"her own" husband; (3) the definition of the wife's sub-
ordination in terms of the church's subordination to
Christ.

Verses 25-33 — The Mutual Subordination of the
Husband

Verse 25 defines the meaning of mutual sub-
ordination for husbands with an imperative. The only
commands in the passage are to husbands, not to wives.
The husband is commanded to love the wife. Mutual
subordination for him is defined as loving the wife. Love
is defined by Christ's giving up of self for the good of the
church. Jesus alone is the origin and the criterion of
marital love as mutual subordination. Love is not de-
fined by a principle, but by the person of the Messiah.
Husbands are exhorted to give themselves up for their
wives. When Christ is upheld as the model for hus-
bands, it is not his power, lordship, or authority which is
presented, but his humility and servanthood. Headship
language is turned on its head. Power is redefined as
love and self-giving, not as exercising authority over an-
other person.

The head/body metaphor is changed to the groom/
bride relationship in verse 27. The bridegroom's love has
the will and power to effect a total transformation. He
confers a dignity and wholeness on the bride which she
does not possess on her own.

Verse 28 translates literally as "in the same manner
also husbands owe it to love their wives for they are
their bodies." The "also" before "husbands" makes it
clear that the "so" or "in the same manner" at the be-
ginning of verse 28 refers to the love of Christ described
in verses 25-27, not to love of self. The husband's love is
compared with Christ's love (as in v. 25), not with a

132 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

man's natural love of his own body. Only after the hus-
band's love has been compared with Christ's love does
Paul describe the effect of such love on the wife. She is
her loving husband's body. Mutual subordination for the
husband means loving the wife so that the two become
so intimately one that he can call her "his body," and
call his love for her, love for his body.

Furthermore, the logic of the husbands love for his
wife is very important. The movement is not from love of
self to love of one's wife to love of Christ. Rather, it is
from the love shown by Christ, to the love shown for the
wife to the love of the husband for himself. This manner
of reasoning about marriage was radical in Paul's day,
as it is in the twentieth century.

Verses 29-30 explain verse 28 further, "for no one
ever has hated his own flesh." No husband hates his
wife, for she is his body. Rather, he continuously nur-
tures and cares (notice the shift from past to continuous
present tense) for her. For the third time in this passage
(w. 23 and 25) the phrase "just as the Messiah" is found
in the second half of a statement. It attributes to Christ
the basis for and model of the behavior expected of hus-
bands. When Christ's care for the church is the model
for husbands, they will care for their wives and hatred
will have no place. What the church experiences from
Christ is what wives should expect from their husbands.
Nothing is asked of husbands that has not first been re-
alized in the church.

Verse 31 quotes Genesis 2:24, now applied to the
Christ/church model of verses 29b-30. The phrase "for
this reason," which in Genesis 2 referred to the creation
of Eve out of Adam, now refers to the Christ/church re-
lationship described in verses 25-30. Christ's salvation
of the church fulfills all that was said of Adam and Eve

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

133

in Genesis 2. The miracle of union of husband and wife
predicted in Genesis 2 has occurred in the Christ/church
relationship. The concept is so revolutionary that Paul
calls it a "mystery," an end-time secret previously hid-
den but now revealed. Earlier in Ephesians Paul writes
that the mystery concerns the incorporation of Gentiles
into God's people. Christ's relation to the church, which
includes the incorporation of diverse peoples, is the orig-
inal model of the marriage relationship. Mutual sub-
mission pertains to the very nature of Christ and his re-
lationship to the church in all its diversity.

What is implied by the application of the Christ/
church relationship to marriage in verses 28-32 is made
explicit in verse 33, "in sum, one by one, each one of you
must love his wife as himself." The strong command,
"must love," the emphatic inclusion of "every one," and
the address to husbands before the wives distinguish
verse 33 from verses 22-25, where the wives were ex-
horted first. The sharpness of Paul's address to the hus-
bands in comparison with the soft manner of encour-
aging the wives indicates that Paul considers the men
more reluctant to show love for their wives than for the
wives to subordinate themselves to their husbands.
"And the wife in order that she may reverence the hus-
band" is a hesitant statement compared with the direct
words to the husband. Paul seems to say that "I expect
that the wife will be enabled to reverence her husband
by his behavior toward her, but I do not command it."

REFLECTIONS

Ephesians 5:21-33 concerns family order, not church
order. This text cannot be used to argue for the sub-
mission of women in the church. The text says nothing
about church order.

134 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Paul's concern for family order is directed more to
husbands than to wives. The demands on husbands are
significantly heavier than on wives. Wives are asked to
order themselves appropriately as ethical agents in a re-
lationship of equals. Only forty words in three verses
are addressed to wives. Furthermore, wives are not or-
dered to submit to "the order of marriage." Paul has no
theology of orders. The only order for Paul is the Christ-
centered one. The Christ/church relation is PauTs sub-
stitute for the law of marriage. The call for submission
is a limited one, to the husband only. Women are not in-
ferior persons who must submit to all men.

Husbands are commanded to love. Ninety-two words
in eight verses are addressed to them. Paul commands
husbands to love three times: verses 25a, 28, 33. Love
and love alone is the husband's critical obligation to his
wife. Further, Paul does not leave it to the husbands
imagination to define love. The example of Christ de-
fines the nature of love. Headship and power language
is redefined in the most radical terms. To be the head is
to love and to give up self for the sake of the other, the
wife.

Ephesians 5:21-33 is a profound and radical family
order text. Headship language here and in 1
Corinthians 11 cannot be used to argue that women are
inferior or that women must submit to male leadership.
Headship language concerns the husband/wife re-
lationship, not the woman/man relationship in church
leadership.

Furthermore, in the upside down world of Christ's
kingdom, headship means taking the lead in self-
sacrifice. The hostility of the fall has been overcome.
There is a new creation order and community, the model

THE HUSBAND IS THE HEAD OF THE WIFE

135

of Christ and the body of the church. All things are
made new in the new creation.

The problem in Ephesians 5:21-33 is not women, but
men. The modern church would do well to let Pauls vi-
sion for men and husbands correct our distortions. To
take Ephesians 5 seriously would certainly address the
family crisis of our time, and the problem of abuse of
women in the home and in the church. The church
would do well to use Ephesians 5 as Paul intended it, to
call men to change.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Barth, Markus. Ephesians 4 — 6 . Doubleday, 1974.

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . Baker, 1985.

Clark, S.B. Man and Woman in Christ . Servant Books, 1980.

Evans, Mary J. Woman in the Bible . InterVarsity Press, 1983.

Hurley, J.B. Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective .
Zondervan, 1981.

Michelsen, Alvera, ed. Women, Authority and the Bible .
InterVarsity, 1986.

Park, David M. The Structure and Authority in Marriage: An
Examination of Hupotasso and Kephale in Ephesians
5:21-33." Evangelical Quarterly 59 (1987): 117-124.

I PERMIT NO WOMAN
TO TEACH

10

John E. Toews

Women in Church Leadership:
1 Timothy 2:8-15

Corrie ten Boom of Holland spent time in a Nazi con-
centration camp because of her family's involvement
with hiding Jews during the war. After her release
from the death camp, she set out for the United States
"to carry the Gospel as a missionary to the Americans,"
she writes. The opportunities for speaking, however,
did not come easily. "The Americans were polite and
some of them were interested, but none wanted me to
come and speak . . . No one was interested in a middle-
aged spinster woman from Holland who wanted to
preach." After the endorsement of an influential
Christian man, she told her story time and again, al-
ways with an evangelistic thrust. Corrie's ministry en-
tailed three decades of speaking in more than sixty
countries, beginning in the United States. She and oth-
er women like Joni Eareckson represent a new breed of

138 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

female speakers whose subject matter comes primarily
out of their own struggles in the Christian life. — Ruth
A Tucker and Walter Lief eld, Daughters of the Church

The critical biblical text for the question of women in
ministry is 1 Timothy 2:11-15. However, its inter-
pretation is filled with problems. The traditional read-
ing assumes that the thrust of the passage is proper or-
der in the church, and its point the subordination of
women. An alternative interpretation argues that wom-
en are forbidden to teach only if they are unlearned or if
they link teaching with sexual seduction. A third inter-
pretation refers the passage to family relationships and
not to issues of church order. [ 1 ]

THE TRADITIONAL INTERPRETATION: THE
SUBORDINATION OF WOMEN

The traditional interpretation of verses 11-12 teach-
es that women are to be silent in the church, to be sub-
ordinate to men, not to teach in the church, and not to
exercise authority over men. Two reasons are given for
this interpretation. First, teaching involves the exercise
of authority; it is a governing function restricted to men.
Secondly, women are not to exercise authority over men.
This reading of verse 12b assumes that the word au-
thentein, the only occurrence of this word in the New
Testament, means "to exercise authority." Its precise
meaning is ambiguous. It may forbid women to exercise
authority over men, or to usurp authority from men, or
to improperly use authority over men. Despite this ac-
knowledged ambiguity, traditional interpreters under-
stand the word to forbid all exercise of authority.

1 For a longer version of this article with documentation, see 'Women in
Church Leadership. 1 Timothy 2:11-15: A Reconsideration," The Bible
and the Church: Essays in Honor of Dr. David Ewert (Kindred Press,
1988), pp. 75-93.

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

139

The issue in verses 11-12 then, according to this in-
terpretation, is the proper relationship of men and wom-
en in the church. Women are to be silent and not to
teach in the church because such activity constitutes
"exercising authority" over men.

Verses 13-14 provide the reasons women are to be
silent.

Verse 13 is believed to assert that because Adam
was created first, males are superior throughout history.

Verse 14 states the cause as the fall. Eves deception,
in this reading, changed the nature of womanhood and
made all women more susceptible to deception than
men. Therefore, it is inappropriate for women to teach
and exercise authority.

Verse 15 is a very difficult verse, and its meaning
remains uncertain. Most evangelicals struggle between
reading the words "woman will be saved through child-
bearing" as a reference to the birth of the Messiah, or as
a statement about the proper sphere of women's activ-
ities and the good works of verse 10. Both views are
problematic. The text does not speak of the Messiah,
and the second view involves a theology of salvation by
works that runs contrary to Pauls teaching.

Problems with the Traditional Interpretation

The traditional reading has been challenged for a va-
riety of reasons.

(1) It fails to recognize that the critical words in the
text have more than one meaning, as the standard
Greek dictionary indicates. The traditional inter-
pretation reads each word in the most restrictive way
possible, even when this is a secondary meaning or is
consistently used differently by Paul in other passages.

(2) The traditional interpretation contradicts at least
six other teachings of Paul which then must be resolved.

140 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

a. A radical differentiation between men's and wom-
en's roles contradicts the principle of the mutuality of
the sexes in 1 Corinthians 7 and Ephesians 5.

b. The prohibition of women teaching contradicts
Colossians 3:16 and 1 Corinthians 14:26, which state
that the teaching ministry is open to all qualified believ-
ers. The word "teach" in Colossians is the same as in 1
Timothy 2. The teaching ministry is open to all on the
same basis as the other ministries listed in Colossians 3:
authority to forgive (v. 13), to love (v. 14), to admonish
and to make music (v. 16). None are restricted on the
basis of sex. Verses 18-19 differentiate instructions on
the basis of gender. Thus Paul differentiates between
men and women when necessary. If a ban on women
teachers was important for all the churches, it would
have been in order for Paul to remind the churches of
this restriction in the context of a general invitation to
share in Christian ministries, including teaching.

c. The prohibition of teaching contradicts the free-
dom for women to exercise the more authoritative min-
istry of prophecy. The most authoritative ministries in
the New Testament are apostle, prophet, and teacher.
In every catalog of the gifts (Rom. 12, 1 Cor. 12, Eph. 4)
teaching is always listed after prophecy. Women are free
to prophesy (1 Cor. 11:5; Acts 2:16-18; 21:9). Prophecy is
teaching by inspiration rather than from tradition. It is
a more authoritative ministry than teaching. Apostles
and prophets constitute the foundation of the church,
whereas teaching is not so defined. Paul's teaching is in-
consistent if 1 Timothy 2 forbids women to teach though
they are free to exercise the more authoritative min-
istries in the church.

d. The reading of the Adam/Eve illustration contra-
dicts Paul's other uses of Adam and Eve. Adam's crea-

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

141

tion before Eve is used only one other time in the New
Testament, 1 Corinthians 11:8-10. Adam's creation be-
fore Eve is declared meaningless because "in the Lord"
both are interdependent. Therefore, the woman can wor-
ship God independently of the man (as long as she is ap-
propriately dressed). Here Eve is held accountable for
the fall of the human race. But in Romans 5 and 1
Corinthians 15 Adam is held responsible. Paul, there-
fore, sounds discordant in the traditional interpretation
of 1 Timothy.

e. If the ban on women teaching is a retribution for
the fall, then Adam's responsibility for the fall should
involve a restriction for men. To prohibit women but not
men from teaching as a judgment for the fall really
means that women are excluded from full salvation be-
cause of Eves sin. Furthermore, if the ban on women
teaching is a function of the fall, there is no explanation
why this ministry is chosen rather than the more au-
thoritative ministry of prophecy.

f. Finally, this interpretation contradicts Pauls own
practice of including women in his ministries. Paul
names sixteen women as "co-workers" in his ministries
(Rom. 16; Phil. 4:2-3; Col. 4:15; Phlm. 2; Acts 16:14-15).
The terms used to describe the activities of these women
are normally associated with leadership roles: "min-
ister'' (Rom. 16:1); "ruler 7 ' (Rom. 16:2); "my fellow work-
er in Christ Jesus" (Rom. 16:3; Phil. 4:3); "apostle"
(Rom. 16:7); "worked hard in the Lord" (Rom. 16:6, 12);
"contended at my side for the cause of the gospel" (Phil.
4:3); "explaining the way of the Lord more accurately"
(Acts 18:26). (See Chapters 2 and 7.)

These contradictions create problems for a coherent
reading of Paul. Any overall interpretation of the min-
istry of women in the church, and of the 1 Timothy 2

142

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

text, must create a more consistent interpretation of
Paul

(3) That this prohibition is mentioned only once in
Scripture is problematic. The exclusion of women from a
significant ministry is a major stance that should be re-
peated in other writings dealing with the exercise of
ministries in the church. The texts dealing with such
ministries (Rom. 12, 1 Cor. 12, Eph. 4) do not hint at the
exclusion of women. In fact, it is clear that women are
gifted and empowered for diverse ministries of the
church. The gifts and ministries of the Spirit are never
differentiated on the basis of gender.

(4) The problem of verse 15 ("she shall be saved
through childbirth'') calls the entire traditional inter-
pretation into question. If a key statement in any text
cannot be integrated into the overall meaning of the
text, as well as into the other teachings of the Scripture,
that suggests the text has not been properly interpreted.

AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION: NO
UNLEARNED WOMAN SHALL TEACH

A series of evangelical scholars are attempting an al-
ternative interpretation to resolve some of the problems
of the traditional interpretation.

The Historical Context of 1 Timothy 2:11-15

The Pastoral Letters address problems of false
teaching in young missionary churches (1 Tim. 1:3-11,
19-20; 4:1-10; 6:3-4, 20f.; 2 Tim. 1:15; 2:14, 16-18, 23;
3:1-9, 13; 4:3-4; Titus 1:10-16; 3:9-11). 1 Timothy was
written to stop false teaching (1:3). It is clear that wom-
en were involved in the false teachings (1 Tim. 3:11,
5:11-15; 2 Tim. 3:6-7), and that some women were going

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

143

from house to house spreading these teachings (1 Tim.
5:13). Young widows especially were among those in-
fluenced by the false teachers.

It is important to note that Ephesus was one of the
centers of female religion in the ancient world. It was
known as "the bastion of the female spiritual principle."
One temple was dedicated to Artemis (or Diana) and a
second to Aphrodite (Venus). The goddess Artemis rep-
resented the most powerful expression of the Great
Mother. She took second place to no other god. In the re-
ligious culture of Ephesus, woman was created before
man. The role of the male in procreation was un-
important. Descent was claimed through the mother.
The genealogy of the mother, not the father, provided a
person with rank. Women were thought to possess spe-
cial affinity for the divine and served as mediators be-
tween the human and the divine. Sacred prostitution,
therefore, was a special feature of religion in Ephesus
and of the divine/human mediation. Temple prostitution
effected a union with the goddess, thus bringing salva-
tion and fertility. Ephesus boasted thousands of
prostitutes.

By the end of the first century, a gnostic world view
was taught in Ephesus. This view stated that female ac-
tivity was responsible for the creation of the universe,
and that Eve pre-existed Adam, who was created from
her side. She could procreate without Adam and she was
his instructor. In addition, laws in Ephesus forbade
women, with the exception of prostitutes, to wear the
adornment forbidden to Christian women in 1 Timothy
2:9.

Finally, a general link between teaching and sexual
activity existed in the ancient world. Male teachers en-
gaged in homosexuality with male students. Female

144 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

teachers concluded their teaching by announcing their
availability for sex with their students.

We must remember that 1 Timothy was written to a
church in a culture dominated by false teaching and a
focus on female sexuality. Paul was attempting to cor-
rect situations that involved women serving as false
teachers, acting immorally, dressing as prostitutes, and
arguing about questions of origins (genealogies).

The Literary Context of 1 Timothy 2:11-15

Chapter 2 begins with "therefore" followed by in-
structions that are a consequence of the concern for com-
bating false teaching in Chapter 1. The thesis of
Chapter 2 is that the gospel is for all people (w. 1, 4-6,
7). Therefore, the first order of business is offering
prayers for all people, including the authorities.

In verse 8 the concern shifts to particular con-
troversies in Ephesus affecting the credibility of the gos-
pel. The main issue is improper conduct: men are gath-
ering for prayer but fighting instead. Women are
dressing inappropriately, teaching before they are
knowledgeable, and linking their teaching to sexual
activity.

The issue of teaching is preceded by an exhortation
regarding proper dress. The critical concern of the
adornment texts is fidelity in marriage. Women's adorn-
ment and submission to husbands are linked in common
instructions in the ancient world. They are two sides of
the same coin. The adornment texts uniformly speak in
favor of modest clothes and of a wife's submission to her
husband. Expensive adornment was a sign of sexual in-
fidelity, and in Ephesus the adornment question was
also linked to prostitution.

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

145

The Meaning of the Words in 1 Timothy 2:11-15

The standard New Testament Greek dictionary in-
dicates that interpreters must make important choices
of meaning for the key words in this text. Optional
meanings are indicated in the order of preference given
in the dictionary.

The word translated "silence" in verses 11 and 12
means (1) quietness, as in peace or harmony, or (2)
quiet, as in silence. The word "subjection," also in verse
11, is a military term that means "in order." It is con-
cerned with the right "lining up" of troops for battle.
Properly ordered troops are said to be "in subjection."

"I am not allowing" (v. 12) is the primary meaning of
epitrepo. But the secondary meaning, "order" or "in-
struct," is preferred when the word is used with the in-
finitive form of the verb. "To teach" and "to sexually se-
duce" ("to exercise authority" in the traditional
interpretation) are infinitives. So in verse 12 the word
has something to do with proper ordering or lining up.

The critical word in verse 12 is authentein, tradi-
tionally translated as "to exercise authority." It is a com-
pound word from "self and "thrust." The basic meaning
is "to thrust oneself." The word went through three
stages of meaning in the ancient world. The earliest
meaning is to "commit murder or suicide," that is, to
thrust a weapon into someone. The second stage of
meaning, from 300 B.C. to A.D. 300 (the period of our
text) is to "thrust oneself sexually" or to "desire sexual-
ly." This meaning is used in an intertestamental writing
known as the Wisdom of Solomon 12:6. John
Chrysostom, one of the earliest church fathers to com-
ment on 1 Timothy 2:12, translates the text as "I forbid
a woman to teach and to engage in fertility practices
with a man." Another early church father, Clement of

146 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Alexandria (A.D. 200), uses the word with the same
meaning. The third stage of meaning, which begins
around A.D. 300, is to "thrust oneself to rule" or to
"usurp authority." Traditional interpreters have taken a
later meaning and read it back into the New Testament,
but the word must be defined by the usage of its period,
and thus refers to sexual intercourse in the text.

The "for" at the beginning of verse 13 is normally an
explanatory term, not a causal word as in the tradi-
tional interpretation. It introduces an explanation or il-
lustration, not a statement of cause; it means "for ex-
ample" not "because." The other "double meaning" word
in verse 13 is the word "created." It can mean (1) to
create something or (2) to form with understanding.
Thus, it can refer to Adam's creation by God or to his ed-
ucation by God.

The word "saved" in verse 15 normally means "pre-
served for good" or "preserved from disaster and afflic-
tion." In the New Testament, and especially in Paul, it
most often refers to "salvation from sin and death," but
it can still be used in its secular sense.

The Meaning of 2:11-15

Verse 11 - "Let a woman be discipled peacefully in
all orderliness."

The lead sentence states that women are to be dis-
cipled and taught. This instruction represents a radical
teaching in the ancient world. With a few exceptions,
women were not taught. But in the church, women are
to be taught.

Women's learning is to be characterized by two
things. They are to learn peacefully or harmoniously.
The connotation of silence is not present. Secondly, the
learning is to be orderly. Submission is not the issue,

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

147

but orderliness in learning. Women are to be learners
during their instructional times; they are not to assert
themselves prematurely as teachers.

This teaching addresses the style of female worship
in the ancient world. The worship of women was differ-
ent from that of men. They often worshiped different
gods in different temples on different days and in differ-
ent ways. Women were noisy and uninhibited in wor-
ship while the men were sedate and silent. The worship
of women was often indecent and indiscreet. When these
women became Christians, they had to learn a different
mode of worship.

Verse 12 - "And I am not lining up (or I am not per-
mitting) a woman to teach or to sexually seduce a man,
but to be in peacefulness."

Though Paul is instructing women in Ephesus not to
teach, the verb "lining up" here does not refer to a con-
tinuing state. Paul, more than any other New
Testament writer, separated his personal advice for a
particular situation from permanently valid instruction.
He identifies a command of the Lord as such (e.g., 1 Cor.
7:6, 10, 12, 25, 40), or he explicitly states a command to
be observed in all the churches (e.g., 1 Cor. 11:16; 14:33,
34, 36). In contrast, when Paul gave personal advice, he
used the first person singular verb form (e.g., 1 Cor 7:6,
7, 8, 12, 17, 25, 26, 28, 29, 32, 35, 40). In verse 12 Paul
uses the typical verbal form for giving personal counsel.
It is his advice for the particular situation in Ephesus,
and cannot be generalized into a command for all time.
Paul could have written "I will never permit" if that is
what he intended. Furthermore, when Paul does specify
a timeless instruction, he usually indicates this with
phrases such as "in behalf of air (1 Tim. 2:1) or "in ev-
ery place" (1 Tim. 2:8). He gives no indication that the

148 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

instruction for women not to teach is to be understood
as a continuing prohibition. Rather, he is offering in-
struction for the particular situation in Ephesus.

The word "teach" can refer to authoritative
Christian teaching, to teaching one another, to human
teaching, or to Jewish teaching. The teaching described
here is teaching one another. Paul does not want un-
learned women to be teaching men. More specifically,
Paul does not want women to be teaching men and sex-
ually seducing them, which was the practice in the
church in Thyatira (Rev. 2:20). Instead, the women are
to be peaceful or harmonious. They are to be in the com-
munity as gracious learners, not seductive teachers.

Clearly the instruction of verses 11-12 is that women
be peaceful learners because it is the first thing said in
verse 11 and the last thing said in verse 12. A literal
translation indicates the poetic structure of the text and
underlines this emphasis:

A woman in peacefulness let learn

in all orderliness

to teach not I am lining up

nor to sexually seduce a man
but to be in peacefulness.

Verses 13-14 - "For example, Adam was formed with
understanding first, and then Eve. And Adam was not
deceived, but the woman was deceived having become a
transgressor."

The example of Adam and Eve offers a Jewish com-
mentary on the creation story. The example makes one
point, not two, as in most commentaries. The issue is ed-
ucation as a safeguard against deception. Creation and
then the fall are not two different events and causes.
Adam was taught first; his understanding was formed

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

149

first, and then Eve's. In other words, verses 13-14
present a statement about the order of Adam's and
Eve's education, not the order of their creation. Adam
was not deceived because he knew better. Eve was mis-
led because she was not properly taught. Adam's being
created first makes him more knowledgeable and thus
more responsible, not more righteous.

The point of the illustration is that women must be
taught or they will again be led astray, as in fact was
happening (5:15). This interpretation fits the one other
reference to Eve's being deceived, 2 Corinthians 11:3.
There Eve is an illustration of the dangers of being led
astray by unauthorized teachers.

Verse 15 - "And she will be saved by means of the
childbearing if they remain in faith and love and ho-
liness with reasonable judgment."

"Saved" is used here in its non-theological meaning,
to preserve from natural dangers and afflictions, to keep
in good condition.

But from what will the woman be preserved in child-
bearing? Interpreters have offered two proposals. First,
she will be preserved from the theological barrier that
outlaws her from teaching. In childbearing woman dem-
onstrates her divinely ordered preeminence over man,
even as man's prior creation and education shows his
preeminence over woman. Paul's argument here is inter-
preted as similar to 1 Corinthians 11:8-9. Woman is
saved from her subordinate status by bearing children.
Woman assumes a prior position to the man as his
source. While woman is created and educated second,
she is first in the birthing sequence. Childbearing then
serves the healing function of counterbalancing man's
prior creation and education.

150 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Although such reasoning seems strange to us, it
shows that Paul was struggling to express a funda-
mental equality between the sexes in categories that
were understandable at that time. Each sex is logically
prior in equally significant, but different, ways.

The second proposal interprets salvation to mean
protection in the intensified pain of the birthing process.
That is, salvation addresses the pain of the curse in
Genesis 3.

Whatever the precise object of the salvation, the
verse concludes by promising woman's full restoration if
women and men — "they" (plural, not singular as at the
beginning of the verse) — live faithfully.

Verses 11-15, therefore, teach that women are to be
educated before they teach. Women are forbidden to
teach if they are unlearned or if they link teaching with
sexual seduction.

An Assessment of the Debate

The nontraditional interpretation provides an his-
torical context for the concern of the text. It takes se-
riously the ambiguous language used, and it resolves
the problem of contradictions with other Pauline teach-
ings. The interpretation of verse 15 offers more hope of
contextual meaning. On strictly interpretive and exeget-
ical grounds, this reading is preferable to the traditional
one.

But the debate illustrates a critical problem in inter-
pretation. Evangelical scholars are unable to agree on
what Paul is saying. This lack of interpretive consensus
is an evangelical family affair; it is not an evangelical/
liberal dispute. Most critical scholars resolve the prob-
lems in the alternative interpretations by declaring 1
Timothy non-Pauline and nonauthoritative for the

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

151

church. The evangelical community is deeply divided
over the real meaning of 1 Timothy 2:11-15. Are women
only prohibited from teaching men, or are they pro-
hibited from teaching anyone? Does the prohibition ap-
ply to women everywhere in all times, or only to women
addressed in the culturally specific situation of first-
century Ephesus? The wide and intensive dis-
agreements among evangelical scholars indicates that
both readings are problematic. When two alternative
readings of the text are so diametrically opposite, they
usually share a common assumption which if challenged
creates the possibility of a different reading.

ANOTHER POSSIBLE READING: A CONCERN
FOR FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

The traditional and the nonrestrictive inter-
pretations are built on one common assumption: both
assume that verses 11-15 concern public worship. This
assumption is based on two more assumptions. First,
verses 1-7 refer to prayer in public worship, and second-
ly, the exhortation for men to pray with hands lifted re-
fers to public prayer. "In every place" in verse 8 is as-
sumed to mean "every place where the church gathers
for worship." The rest of the chapter is read as a dis-
cussion of public worship on the basis of these
assumptions.

A Challenge to the Common Assumption

The assumption ought to be challenged on at least
six grounds.

(1) In the Old Testament and Judaism, the father, as
head of the family, led prayers for the household and
taught the members of the extended family. Everything

152 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

exhorted in Chapter 2:lff. is instruction given to fathers.

(2) "In every place" is used three other times by Paul
(1 Thes. 1:8; 1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 2:4), and never means
"whenever the church gathers for worship," nor is it a
synonym for "in every church." The phrase refers to the
world, to every place where the action described is oc-
curring. In 1 Timothy 2:8 Paul is talking about men
praying wherever they are. Nothing suggests a public
worship context.

(3) Who is to submit in verse 11 has never been
clear. The Adam and Eve illustration suggests the wife
is to submit to the husband. But scholars have assumed
it is men in general. Nothing in the context, however,
suggests the reference is anything other than the hus-
band of the Adam and Eve illustration.

(4) The singular "she" in verses ll-15a has always
puzzled scholars. It should be plural for women in public
worship.

(5) The linkage between adornment/sexual fidelity
and marital submission in the adornment texts has
been ignored by nearly all interpreters.

(6) The shift from the singular "she" to the plural
"they" in verse 15 has troubled scholars. The assump-
tion is that the shift is from woman as singular to wom-
en as plural. Thus, if women as a collective body will
live by faith, love and holiness, they will be saved.

A New Reading

I suggest that 1 Timothy 2:8-15 refers to family
relationships.

Verse 8 - The lifting of hands in prayer is a common
practice in Judaism whether in public or private prayer.
Husbands are exhorted to pray with proper posture and
disposition.

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

153

Verses 9-10 - The issue of the adornment of women
is concerned with husband/wife relationships. Wives are
to live monogamously with their husbands.

Verse 11 - The words translated "woman" in verses
11 and 12 and "man" in verse 12 are the common words
for wife and husband. The only exhortation in the New
Testament for women to "be submissive," and "to order
themselves appropriately" is to married women (Eph.
5:24; Col. 3:18; 1 Pet. 3:1). Husbands are to teach their
wives. Wives are to learn peacefully and without the use
of sexual manipulation.

It is hard to imagine how radical this teaching was
in the ancient world. The home was the private domain,
literally, the "domain of the idiot." The public assembly,
called the ecclesia (our word for church), was a place of
higher education. The home was the center of a woman's
power, the public place was the center of a man's power.
The two did not intersect. Besides Paul, only a few men
like Musonius Rufus, a Roman philosopher of Paul's
time, issue a radical challenge that women be treated as
fully equal with men and that they be educated. Both
assert that the public sphere should be moved into the
private.

Paul wants to give content to the marital re-
lationship. That also is a radical stance. It was common
for men to be 30 or more years of age at the time of mar-
riage and for women to be in their teens. Paul's exhorta-
tion for husbands to teach their young wives is
revolutionary.

Verse 12-13 - The relationship between husband and
wife is illustrated in the example of Adam and Eve.
When Eve, who was uninformed because of her sub-
sequent creation, taught Adam, she led herself and
Adam astray.

154 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Verse 15 - The reference to salvation through child-
bearing is a promise either that the wife will be saved
from her subordinate status by childbearing or that she
will be preserved from disaster in childbearing. The plu-
ral pronoun of verse 15b refers to the husband and wife,
picking up the idea of Adam and Eve from the previous
statement. The wife will be preserved in childbirth if the
husband and wife together live by faith, love and ho-
liness. Christian discipleship is the equal responsibility
of the husband and wife together.

Proposed Translation of 2:8-15

Verse 8-1 wish, therefore, the husbands to pray in every
place lifting holy hands without anger or disputation.

Verse 9 - Likewise, also wives dress with good taste and
modesty and dress with good judgment, not with plait-
ed hair and gold or pearls or expensive clothes,

Verse 10 - but as fitting wives who promise godliness
through good works.

Verse 11 - Let a wife be discipled peacefully in all
orderliness.

Verse 12 - And I am not permitting a wife to teach or sex-
ually manipulate her husband, but to be in
peacefulness.

Verses 13-14 - For example, Adam was formed with un-
derstanding first and then Eve. And Adam was not
deceived but the woman was deceived having become
a transgressor.

Verse 15 - And she (the wife) shall be saved through child-
bearing if they (husband and wife) remain in faith
and love and holiness with good judgment.

I PERMIT NO WOMAN TO TEACH

155

Summary

The focus of the text is on the husband/wife re-
lationship, not public worship. Therefore, this text ought
not to be used to address the question of women's roles
in public ministry. The point of the text is that the un-
learned wife is to be taught by her husband, thus giving
theological content to the marriage relationship. She is
not to teach her husband or to link teaching him with
sexual manipulation. Furthermore, the wife should not
participate in prostitution, sacred or otherwise, but live
faithfully with her husband as together they seek to be
true disciples of Jesus.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Bilezikian, Gilbert. Beyond Sex Roles . Baker, 1985.

Clark, S.B. Man and Woman in Christ . Servant Books, 1980.

Evans, Mary J. Woman in the Bible , InterVarsity, 1983.

Fee, Gordon. "Issues in Evangelical Hermeneutics, Part III:
The Great Watershed — Intentionality and Particularity/
Eternality: 1 Timothy 2:8-15 as a Test Case." Crux 26
(1990): 31-37.

Gritz, Sharon Hodgin. Paul, Women Teachers and the Mother
Goddess at Ephesus. A Study of 1 Timothy 2:9-15 in Light
of the Religious and Cultural Milieu of the First Century .
University Press of America, 1991.

Hurley, J.B. Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective .
Zondervan, 1981.

Michelsen, Alvera, ed. Women. Authority and the Bible .
InterVarsity, 1986.

156 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Toews, John E. "Women in Church Leadership: 1 Timothy
2:11-15, A Reconsideration." The Bible and the Church .
A.J. Dueck, H.J. Giesbrecht, V.G. Shillington, eds.
Kindred Press, 1988: 75-93.

WOMEN IN THE
CHRISTIAN CHURCH

11

Marilyn G. Peters

The Relation of Renewal and
Institutionalization

Anneken Jans, a Dutch Anabaptist, suffered death by
drowning in 1539. An heiress of a considerable for-
tune, she sacrificed everything for her faith, and at
the age of 24, was baptized with her husband.
Because she was singing a hymn, she was arrested
and charged with sectarianism. At the place of execu-
tion she pled with someone in the crowd to adopt her
15-month-old son Esaias. She offered a full purse for
the child's support. A baker with six children of his
own volunteered. She left her young son a letter in-
spiring him to faithful performance as a Christian. —
Mennonite Encyclopedia

The history of women in ministry in the church is a
story of paradox. New and reform movements tend to
open and encourage the ministry of women. As the

158

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

movements institutionalize, however, women are often
restricted in ministry, and denied the ministries they
performed earlier.

THE EARLY CHURCH

No uniform policy or practice regarding women in
ministry prevailed in the first centuries. The historical
evidence — writings, mosaics and frescoes — indicate that
the ministry of women flourished in the early church.
Women were deacons and ministers in the church. The
same evidence reports the emergence of negative at-
titudes toward women — the cause of sin and seducers —
and restriction or even prohibition of the ministry of
women.

Regardless of attitudes, women died for the faith
just as men did. Eusebius narrates the martyrdom of
Blandina in 177 A.D. as proof that God uses and honors
the ministry of women. Her torture was long and in-
tense, and concluded with her being hanged in the
shape of a cross in an amphitheater. Other Christians,
who also were being persecuted in the same am-
phitheater, looked to her as the image of Christ for sus-
tenance in their own suffering.

MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY

Two conflicting images of women emerged in the
Middle Ages. The most prominent image was of women
as evil and inferior. They were viewed as defective
males, and thus subordinate and inferior to men.
Women were assumed to have low intelligence, to be in-
capable of making moral decisions and to be oriented to-
ward the needs of the flesh.

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

159

The second image of women was epitomized by the
Virgin Mary. In Catholicism, Mary was the mediator be-
tween God and humanity. It is she who takes on the
devil, rebuking and punishing him with divine author-
ity. Mary became a symbol of the chaste life, a state
most pleasing to God. In this image women were per-
ceived as holy and pure, completely devoid of sexuality.
Mary also provided a feminine dimension for the divine.
Prayer language in the Middle Ages, therefore, was
more balanced between "male" and "female" metaphors.
Julian of Norwich wrote that God was "as really our
Mother as he is our Father."

In the midst of these conflicting views, it is not sur-
prising that many women were attracted to the ascetic
way of life. Asceticism permitted women to suppress
their sexuality and strive towards holiness. Rather than
restricting women, the development of monastic orders
gave them new opportunities. They could live in com-
munity, escape the dangers of childbirth, and travel dur-
ing religious pilgrimages.

Monastic life gave women the opportunity to develop
leadership skills and exercise authority. In some places
the abbess received the same recognition as abbots and
bishops. She participated in parliaments, attended
church councils, and signed official church decrees. She
had jurisdiction over the clergy and lay people who lived
on the land owned by the abbey and was answerable
only to the Pope in Rome. Although she could not offer
the sacraments, she gave spiritual guidance, heard con-
fession, determined penance and gave absolution from
sin. Some became quite powerful, such as Catherine
Benincasa who exerted great influence over Pope
Gregory and Urban VI.

160 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

The monastic life also gave women the opportunity
to acquire great learning, and this in turn brought them
to the attention of men in power. Melania the Younger
taught theology to men and women. Marcella translated
and interpreted Scripture. Lioba was trained in classical
philosophy, theology, and canon law. Iioba (A.D. 779)
was held in such high regard that Bishop Boniface
asked her help in controlling the missionary churches in
Germany.

By the eleventh and twelfth centuries the emphases
of the monasteries changed to poverty and public
preaching. Women attempting to open convents in con-
junction with male monasteries often met resistance.
Women were not thought capable of obeying the strict
rules and attaining the level of perfection demanded by
the orders. The Dominicans and Franciscans, who had
encouraged the spiritual development of women, now re-
sisted out of fear that they might have to support the
women, and because association with women was still
considered contaminating. In addition, women's freedom
of movement was curtailed. Pope Boniface VIII tried to
force the monastic women to stay in seclusion.

Some protested the church's restrictions on women.
In the fifteenth century, Christiane de Pisan, a widow at
the age of twenty-five, wrote against the attacks on
women by medieval churchmen. She argued that "there
was good evidence to show that many women were mod-
est, gentle, and loving. As a group, they did not wage
war, and they did not oppress other people. "Adam," she
pointed out, "was just as guilty as Eve in bringing sin
into the world. What is more, women were the ones who
remained faithful to Jesus during his trial and death."

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

161

THE REFORMATION PERIOD

By Reformation times, sexuality was no longer seen
as evil, and women were no longer viewed as temptress-
es and seducers. Both Luther and Calvin encouraged
Christians, including priests, to marry. This gave some
women a new sphere of opportunity as minister's wives.
Their homes became centers of hospitality to theo-
logians and theology students. Luther's wife, Katherine
von Bora, worked with servants, children, visitors, stu-
dents, theologians and church leaders.

According to Luther, men and women were equal in
their responsibilities and privileges before the fall. He
considered the subordination of women the result of
Eve's sin. Calvin argued that woman was made after
man as a "helper" for him — and that meant in sub-
jection to him. Calvin felt that women had to be obedi-
ent to men. A wife was permitted to disobey her hus-
band only when his commands caused her to disobey
God. The reformers stressed that husbands were not to
be cruel to their wives, but that if this did occur, women
must be submissive. A woman could leave her husband
only if her life was endangered.

The status of women was elevated by Luther and
Calvin through a theology of motherhood as ordained by
God. However, by removing the monastic life as an op-
tion for women, they restricted women's roles to those of
motherhood and homemaking.

Based on their belief that the Bible taught the sub-
ordination of women, Lutherans and Calvinists gener-
ally did not allow women to preach, to be ordained, or to
participate in the governing bodies of the churches.
Luther did teach, however, that in unusual circum-

162 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

stances, when men were not available, a woman might
preach as a temporary substitute.

Nevertheless, women were actively involved in
spreading their faith. Sister Jeanne de Jussie, a nun in
Geneva during the growth of Calvinism, writes of wom-
en's activities, including preaching, in spreading
Calvinist doctrine. Jussie writes that the wife of an
"apothecary 7 ' not only preached, but was regarded by
Calvinist leaders as illuminated by God to teach and
preach divine truth.

In summary, the Reformation opened the way for
more participation by women in church affairs. While
these activities were not encouraged in most churches,
they did exist. And while women lost the monastery as a
sphere of female autonomy, Reformation theology el-
evated the status of marriage and ended the association
of women with evil. Girls were encouraged to attend
school, specifically to learn to read the Bible; divorce
laws protected women from abuse. Theologically, the
stage was set for greater participation by women in
church affairs by the emphasis on the priesthood of all
believers.

ANABAPTIST WOMEN

Some sixteenth and seventeenth-century reform
movements — Mennonites, Baptists, and Quakers —
rejected the established connection between the church
and state. Their belief in direct inspiration and in-
dividual freedom expressed itself in greater freedom for
men and women in church ministries.

Women in these groups had more varied re-
sponsibilities than their Lutheran and Calvinist sisters
and comprised a larger percentage of the congregations.

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

163

When these groups vested authority in the individual,
and in the individual congregation, they opened the way
for the participation of women.

The Quakers were the most open to the gifts of wom-
en but others also allowed some participation. English
Separatist John Smyth gave women a vote in the selec-
tion of a pastor and the disciplining of members. Other
leaders allowed women to speak to issues but not to
vote. Some Mennonite churches in the Netherlands and
North Germany revived the office of deacon for women,
but the office was limited to widows over sixty. These
deacons were not ordained, but in some cases were con-
sidered church officers. Others, such as Soetken Gerrits
and Vrou Gerrits, wrote hymns.

Most early anabaptist groups held the traditional
view of silence and subordination for women, but in
practice women were seen as responsible and somewhat
independent individuals. They were expected to make
their own decisions regarding faith and practice. Many
women died as martyrs for their faith. Religious in-
compatibility was added to adultery as grounds for
divorce.

Opinion was mixed on whether or not women should
preach. Most leaders taught the silence of women, but
since anabaptist theology taught that the Holy Spirit
could inspire any believer directly, regardless of educa-
tion or gender, some women felt compelled to speak.

Women did exercise a preaching ministry in some
congregations. Often they met with scorn and rebuke,
occasionally for their teachings, but more often for their
audacity. We have historical lists of women preachers
highly regarded by their congregations, especially in
Holland, France, and England. In one London congrega-

164 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

tion, hundreds of people regularly gathered on Tuesday
afternoons to hear women preach.

In time the anabaptist groups became more in-
stitutionalized. They progressively conformed their
practices to those of society and the established church-
es. As a result, the activities of women were curtailed,
and the silence and subordination of women in the home
and church was increasingly observed.

THE AMERICAN COLONIES

The image of woman as evil lingered on in the early
years of the American colonies. Women were believed in-
capable of intellectual thought. Learning for women was
regarded as inappropriate, even dangerous. Women
were considered spiritually and morally weak, dis-
honest, and susceptible to heretical opinions. Because of
such weaknesses, women were to be kept under control
at all times. They were expected to be church members
and attend worship regularly, but they generally did not
vote and were discouraged from speaking in church
meetings. In some congregations women were not al-
lowed to sing in the worship service and were seated
apart from the men. In those traditions where can-
didates for church membership were required to tell of
their conversion, some ministers insisted that women do
so privately. Since women were thought to be incapable
of theological understanding, they were required to ac-
cept the explanations of male members or their hus-
bands in matters of belief.

There are, however, examples of women prominent
in American religious life. Anne Hutchinson was ex-
communicated for teaching that salvation is a personal
relationship to Christ, and not related to "works." Anne

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

165

Eaton also was excommunicated for teaching adult bap-
tism. Generally though, women had only minimal im-
pact on Puritan theology and church life, and the trial of
out-spoken women as witches greatly limited the free-
dom of women in the church.

Attitudes and practices were changing by the end of
the seventeenth century. Men and women began to be
regarded as spiritual equals. They had the same sinful
natures and took the same journey to salvation. The
prominent New England minister Cotton Mather wrote,
"As a woman had the Disgrace to go first in that horrid
and woeful transgression of our first Parents,... so a
Woman had the Glory of bringing into the World that
Second Adam, who is the Father of all our Happiness."
In addition, their economic contributions on the farm
and frontier became necessary for survival. While sub-
ordination continued to be taught, an emphasis on inter-
dependence was closer to reality. More emphasis was
put on love and mutuality in marriage, while also re-
taining the idea of subjection. This produced an inter-
esting twist in theology. Women as submissive partners
in a spiritual relationship became role models for all
Christians. Women acquired a new status. Christians
were encouraged to learn humility and receptiveness
from the women in their congregations.

The great awakenings brought women new op-
portunities for service. Charles Finney allowed women
to speak before mixed audiences. Although this aroused
hostility among other evangelists, Finney continued the
practice. He later became president of Oberlin College,
which was the first college to admit women. (Antoinette
Brown, the first woman to be ordained in the
Congregational Church, was a graduate of Oberlin.) By
the end of the eighteenth century, the Free Will

166 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Baptists permitted women to serve as preachers and
evangelists, joining the Quaker women serving as min-
isters and missionaries. These women played a sig-
nificant part in spreading Christianity throughout the
colonies.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Developments in the field of psychology at the end of
the eighteenth century changed views on the nature of
women, and caused another shift in the role of women in
American society and the churches. It became popular
to believe that women were endowed with distinctly
"feminine" characteristics. These qualities were then
used to define the roles in which women would find hap-
piness and which God had ordained for them. Women
were said to be irrational, frail, emotional, intuitive, and
nurturing. It was believed that because of these "fem-
inine characteristics," women were more religious and
moral than men, a very significant change from at-
titudes a century earlier. In addition to their home-
making responsibilities, women became responsible for
protecting the faith and morality of society. Women
were to accomplish this task through prayer and by
teaching their sons to be God-fearing citizens.

Defining women by these "feminine characteristics"
became very restrictive. Women who did not dem-
onstrate these characteristics were considered mas-
culine or interested in activities contrary to God's plan.
While great damage was done by this strand of popular
psychology, it opened new areas of participation within
the Christian community.

By mid-century the concept of the ideal women as
domestic, submissive, and pious was firmly planted in

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

167

the minds of white America. The American woman was
to find happiness at home in the role of wife and moth-
er. At the same time, educational opportunities were
opening up for women. Without many career op-
portunities, many women were ripe for the development
of voluntary societies. Revival preachers emphasized
that conversion should be followed by good works, and
defined good works as active involvement in mission
and reform groups. Many of these groups worked to
raise money to support missionaries, to provide supplies
for mission work, or to meet the needs of women and
children at mission outposts. Women became very active
in these groups, and women's missionary societies soon
became an accepted part of church life.

These women's missionary societies also became the
context for challenge to the male domination of church
missions. Many groups were required to call in a male
minister to open their meetings with prayer or to give
an address. And women, while working hard for mis-
sions and contributing much money, were excluded from
the decision-making process of mission boards. Often,
the only option for a woman called by God to the mission
field was to marry a missionary, and even there her role
was that of wife and mother.

It became apparent that missionary work was ham-
pered because women were not actively involved. It was
impossible for male missionaries to reach women in
many cultures where women could only be spoken to or
approached by other women. Slowly mission boards be-
gan to send single women to the field.

Women began to form their own boards in the 1860's
rather than functioning as auxiliaries to denominational
boards. They raised their own funds, determined their
own policies, and sent women out as missionaries. These

168 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

boards made overseas mission work a possibility for
large numbers of single women.

By the early part of the twentieth century, women
represented two-thirds of the church's mission force.
These women taught and managed schools, served in
medical hospitals, published literature, led worship and
preached. More than one modern missiologist has noted
that the more difficult and dangerous the work, the
higher the ratio of women to men. While meaningful
ministry opportunities for women were restricted in
North America, the opposite was true on the mission
field. Every ministry was open to women. Lottie Moon
sailed for China in 1873 as a school teacher. But she be-
lieved her gifts lay in evangelism and church planting.
By the end of the century her work in P ing-tu was de-
scribed as "the greatest evangelistic center [among the
Southern Baptists] in all China." The difference be-
tween what these women did on the mission field and
the way they were treated when they returned to North
America or Europe often became the source of great
frustration. Malla Moe, an early TEAM missionary in
Swaziland, functioned as the mission bishop, assigning
pastors and overseeing their work. When she returned
home, she was not permitted to speak in church.

The first major affirmation of women as preachers
came from the holiness movement which developed out
of the evangelical revivals. A high percentage of holiness
ministers were women. The Church of the Nazarene af-
firmed the right of women to preach as early as 1894.
Phoebe Palmer, a product of the holiness movement,
preached as an evangelist in the United States, Canada
and England. As a result of her ministry, Catherine
Booth and Frances Willard felt God's call to public min-
istry. Booth and her husband, Willard, founded the

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

169

Salvation Army. Booth herself became an effective re-
vival preacher and Willard, claiming that his best sol-
diers in urban missions were women, worked with
D wight Moody speaking on women's suffrage and
temperance.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Significant changes began to occur in the mainline
Protestant churches at mid-century. The African
Methodist Episcopal Church voted to ordain women in
1948. The United Methodist Church granted full confer-
ence rights (including preaching) to women in 1956.
Also in 1956, the Presbyterian Church in the United
States began to ordain women in keeping with its policy
granting women full equality. The Presbyterian Church
went a step further and refused to ordain men who were
unable to recognize women as eligible for ministry.
Seminaries opened all degree programs to women, no
longer limiting them to studies in Christian Education
or the status of "enrichment student."

Even with the admission of women to seminaries,
ministry placements left much to be desired. Women
were sent to less desirable churches. Their salaries were
usually less than half the amount of men. Women, al-
though professionally trained, were patronized, con-
sidered dispensable, and had poorly defined re-
lationships with other church staff and with church
councils. Women serving as ministers often became er-
rand girls, burdened with the work male staff did not
want.

Prompted by these concerns and the Civil Rights Act
of 1964, which prohibited discrimination on the grounds
of sex as well as race, many Christians, both women and

170 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

men, began to question the status of women in the
churches. Denominational reports and special studies
were prepared to deal with the issue from biblical and
practical perspectives. These studies made it apparent
that Christians were confronting deeply rooted tradi-
tions which affected the interpretation of Scripture.

The result was the formation of organizations within
denominational structures to promote equality for wom-
en. The American Baptist Convention formed its
Executive Staff Women in 1969 to study the in-
volvement of women in the churches, and then followed
this up with a Task Force on Women. A United
Methodist Women's Caucus was established to promote
the rights and participation of women. The
Presbyterians organized a Council on Women and the
Church in 1973 to identify issues relevant to the status
of women in church and society. Also in 1973, the
Mennonite Central Committee established a Task Force
on Women's Concerns to promote new relationships and
corresponding supporting structures in which men and
women can grow toward wholeness and mutuality.

These councils advocate that churches continue to
strive for a greater participation of women on church
boards and councils, encourage women to train for the
ministry, and provide ministry opportunities for women
in the churches. They stress the importance of using in-
clusive language in worship, hymns, and church meet-
ings. They also encourage women to dedicate them-
selves to the study of Scripture, church history, and
theology.

The past century has been one of great change in
North American churches. Evangelical preachers from
the period of the great awakenings began the process of
gently prodding women to use their God-given gifts and

WOMEN IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 171

talents. This movement, along with the societal changes
in educational and economic opportunities for women,
have encouraged them to participate more fully in the
life and work of the church.

CONCLUSION

History suggests that new movements and churches
that are focused outward in mission are more open to
the ministry of women. When the church is in flux be-
cause of reform or when the church is overwhelmed by
the work that needs to be done, it seems less concerned
about who does what. As churches become in-
stitutionalized and turn inward toward maintenance,
they tend to restrict the ministry of women.
Nevertheless, the ministry of women in mission, both
urban and foreign, has fueled the missionary outreach
of the church in the modern world, and has produced
some of the most outstanding leaders and results of the
church in mission.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Tucker, Ruth A., and Walter Liefeld. Daughters of the
Church . Zondervan, 1987.

Tucker, Ruth A Guardians of the Great Commission: The
Story of Women in Modern Missions. Zondervan, 1988.

WOMEN IN THE MENNONITE
BRETHREN CHURCH N 12

Katie Funk Wiebe

Images and Realities

Portion of a letter to the Area Administrative Office in
Halbstadt, South Russia, in 1864, from the
Molotschna Council of Church leaders explaining why
they were unable to recognize the newly-formed
Mennonite Brethren Church as a Mennonite Church:

"Since the secessionists have neither a church-
ordained elder nor a properly appointed minister, and
since they absolutely refuse to tie the teaching of the
ministry of the church and the administration of the
sacraments to an ecclesiastical office, but on the con-
trary have every member who feels called to do so ad-
minister these ordinances, — indeed, even the female
members speak in their meetings and pray aloud —
obviously in contradiction to 1 Cor. 12, 2 Cor. 5:18-20;
James 3:1; 1 Cor. 14:34-35 and 1 Tim. 2:12 — there-
fore, according to the rules of our church, we can nei-
ther condone nor recognize as legal such unauthorized

1 For a longer documented version of this chapter, see Mennonite Life
(September 1981), 22-28.

174

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

practices of theirs as baptism, communion and mar-
riage." P.M. Friesen adds an editorial comment that
the women spoke only in home gatherings. — P.M.
Friesen, The Mennonite Brotherhood in Ru ssia 1789-
1910

In Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night," the duke asks
Viola about Olivia, whom he wants to marry: "And
what's her history?" Viola replies, "A blank, my lord."

To ask for the history of Mennonite Brethren women
is to receive the same answer. The record is a blank.
They have been given little room in the story of the
Mennonite Brethren church. History books offer little
help in revealing their role and contribution. Indexes of
such books have few entries under women's names.

It is true that women in the Mennonite Brethren
church have not been church leaders or contributors to
business, agriculture, and educational institutions in a
way openly visible to others and which made history.
Because their contribution is unrecorded, the assump-
tion is sometimes made that women of the Mennonite
church in Russia, including the Mennonite Brethren,
which began there in 1860, were passive, uncreative,
unassertive, accepting their lot with equanimity.

Yet women have never been absent — only officially
unrecorded — and that has made them invisible to later
generations. They were present during the founding and
development of the Mennonite Brethren church, and
their early contribution can best be described as the
quiet shining of a lamp, rather than the powerful roar of
a waterfall.

What has been the particular contribution of women
to the founding of the Mennonite Brethren church and
thereafter? Their record is hidden between lines and in
footnotes, a story of women as human as that of their

WOMEN IN THE MENNONTTE BRETHREN CHURCH

175

husbands, brothers, and fathers. They, too, despaired,
failed, sinned; they also were open to God's redemptive
grace and overcoming love. They showed compassion for
others, tenacity of spirit, and selfless endurance in the
face of tremendous hardships. They were committed to
Christ, his church, and its mission, inasmuch as social
and religious limitations allowed them.

What Factors Contributed to Their Exclusion
from History?

What factors, then, contributed to their official ex-
clusion from history? One main reason is that archival
material in historical libraries is not usually neatly cat-
alogued under women's history, nor do researchers ex-
pect to find significant historical material under wom-
en's names when they do locate them.

Secondly, little in a historian's professional training
equips him (and most historians have been men to date)
to make sense of the lives of ordinary and powerless per-
sons, particularly women, who were not part of the pub-
lic record or who didn't openly influence church policies.
Historians look for exceptional and powerful people and
for the record of their influence in official minutes of
public meetings, public debates, speeches, letters, and
journals. The life stories of ordinary people who go
about their daily tasks quietly and who do not see them-
selves as makers of history do not usually provide the
material for history books.

In the case of the Mennonite Brethren church, addi-
tional factors that need to be considered are theology,
language, and culture. A strong teaching in the
Mennonite church in Russia was nonresistance, an issue
which concerned primarily the sons in the family, not
the daughters. Adherence to this doctrine determined

176 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

whether or not the young men were drafted, and if they
were, what type of service they would do in the military.
Mennonite history often records fathers' concerns for
sons who have to enter the army. Several Mennonite mi-
grations occurred because of this concern for sons' wel-
fare. Women — their needs and their role in relationship
to the peace position — were not part of this major con-
cern. Because the destiny of the Mennonites was
wrapped up with the way sons were involved in this is-
sue and not the way women experienced the truth of
Scripture in relationship to it, women's contribution was
not viewed as significant.

The ambivalent theology of the Mennonite Brethren
with regard to women's roles in the church, particularly
as it related to missions and ordination (see Ch. 11) has
also made their contribution to the church an ambigu-
ous or nonexistent one. Missionary service has always
been an acceptable form of service for men or women
from the beginning of the Mennonite Brethren church,
even though in an overseas country, the woman, par-
ticularly if she was single, might engage in activities
such as preaching, teaching, and leading an in-
stitution — activities not acceptable for woman to do in
the home congregation.

In the early years of the Mennonite Brethren
church, married couples and single women were encour-
aged to make a lifetime career of missions. All were or-
dained to such service, but the women were not officially
allowed to preach. According to the Missionary Album,
published in 1957, the Mennonite Brethren church or-
dained at least 85 women, 35 of them single women.
Because the information is incomplete, the number is
probably higher.

WOMEN IN THE MENNONITE BRETHREN CHURCH 177

Paulina Foote, missionary to China for nineteen
years, expresses some of her ambivalent feelings about
the lack of clear direction regarding what a woman
could or could not do overseas in the following excerpt
from her memoirs written about her ordination in 1922
(God's Hand Over My Nineteen Years in China ):

The thought of an ordination gave me struggles. Women
in our conference do not preach. Why should I be ordained
if I could not proclaim the Gospel to those who had not
heard it? Women were permitted to tell the Gospel to
women and children. What if men would come to my wom-
en's and children's meetings? Should I stop proclaiming
the Gospel message? Did not the men have a right to
hear the Word of God? The church had asked Pastor
Jacob Reimer of Bessie, Oklahoma, and Elder J oh arm
Foth of the Ebenfeld Church near Hillsboro, Kansas, to of-
ficiate at my ordination. Both were considered to be of
the most conservative in the whole conference. What a
surprise to me when Elder Foth in his sermon at the or-
dination proved with Scripture passages that women
should preach. He spoke about Mary Magdalene, who had
followed Christ to the cross. . . She was the first of
Christ's followers who was at the grave on the resurrec-
tion morning. She was the first to tell the greatest story of
all stories that Christ had arisen from the dead. Christ
Himself commanded her to carry the news to the dis-
ciples, the men, and to Peter who had failed Him. My
problem about the ordination was solved. My later ex-
perience proved that this was of the Lord.

Though Miss Foote's mind was clear on the matter of
her ordination, the church at home remained confused,
and this ambivalence led to unclarity regarding what
women who felt called to service in Christ's kingdom
could do in the work of the church, both overseas and at
home.

Not until 1957 did the General Conference of the
Mennonite Brethren Church change its written policy

178 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

regarding ordination of women to a commissioning, stat-
ing, "That in view of the fact that we as an M.B. Church,
on the basis of clearly conceived Scriptural convictions,
do not admit sisters to the public Gospel preaching min-
istry on par with brethren, we as Conference designate
the fact of setting aside sisters to missionary work a
'commissioning* rather than an 'ordination/* But the
sluice gates could not be shut off with a conference res-
olution. Too many young women had been encouraged to
listen for the call to missionary service and all that it
might entail — and then later echoed Foote's
frustrations.

Another reason for the invisibility of women in
Mennonite Brethren history is a misunderstanding of
the Russian Mennonite culture that cradled the
Mennonite Brethren church. We read Mennonite
Brethren church history with North American eyes. We
count church membership here by persons; two hundred
names means two hundred members. The situation in
South Russia at the time of the founding of the
Mennonite Brethren church was a little different. In
that culture, which was introduced from Prussia, a son
or daughter belonged to the father's family until mar-
riage, when a new family unit was set up in the village
books. Land was apportioned to family units, not to in-
dividuals. As soon as a son or daughter married, his or
her name was taken off the parental family register and
together with the spouse considered as a new unit.
People migrated as family units and were processed as
family units, often with widowed members, foster chil-
dren, and even servants as part of the group. In church
life, the same system prevailed.

Alan Peters of Fresno, California, has done much re-
search showing how the signers of the Document of

WOMEN IN THE MENNONITE BRETHREN CHURCH 179

Secession of the Mennonite Brethren Church in 1860
were mostly young men, many related through their
wives, and how the family contributed significantly to
the development of the early Mennonite Brethren
church. Yet, today, when modern readers see 18 sig-
natures attached to the Document of Secession, some de-
duct that these 18 names represent 18 individuals rath-
er than 18 family heads representing 18 family units, a
much different number. Eighteen men signed the docu-
ment, but the charter membership consisted of about 54
people, according to P. M. Friesen. Historians who state
that the church was begun by "eighteen men" read into
Friesen something he never intended to say.

Friesen writes that in the fall of 1859, two weeks af-
ter St. Martin's, a few Geschwister (usually translated
brothers and sisters) were gathered in one of the mem-
ber's homes for the Lord's Supper. As a result, these
members were placed under the ban, and later ex-
communicated and civilly ostracized. On January 6,
1860, the Founding Document was signed by 18 heads
of families and a little later by nine others. Peter Regier,
in his short history, states that women were present at
this meeting but did not sign. Jakob Reimer and other
Gnadenfeld members who signed with him agreed that
on January 6, 1860, the Mennonite Brethren church be-
gan. Yet in a footnote, historian Friesen explains that
the 18 plus 9, or 27, refers to 27 heads of families and
denotes men of full age and a corresponding number of
sisters. Johann Claassen, early leader, in a writing to
the Czar, dated May 21, 1862, states the number of
Mennonites involved in the January 6, 1860, event to be
"ca. 50." In another footnote dealing with Claassen's ref-
erence to the January 6, 1860, meeting, Friesen ex-
plains again, "The members of the family and sym-

180

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

pathizers are included with the 18 family heads who
united on January 6, 1860, to sign the important docu-
ment." He refers to his mother and his eldest sisters as
members of Bible study groups and charter sisters of the
Mennonite Brethren church, together with the men.
Clearly, a better understanding of the cultural context
would have kept writers from making the mistake of at-
tributing the founding of the church to only 18 men.

Another factor making the women invisible and
therefore also their contribution, is the German lan-
guage, which makes it possible to use a term like
Geschwister, which can mean brothers and sisters, or
only brothers, or only sisters, and male-oriented lan-
guage like Brueder (brethren) generically. This ter-
minology, now considered exclusive, was used out of a
desire for greater intimacy and warmth among the early
leaders, but gradually shut out the majority of the
church — the women.

Women's Contribution to the Mennonite Brethren
Church

Despite such factors, women made a significant con-
tribution to the founding and growth of the Mennonite
Brethren church.

1. Women strongly supported their husbands in
their open decisions and quietly influenced the direction
their lives were taking. Friesen mentions repeatedly
Johann Claassen's high regard for his wife, Katharina,
to whom he entrusted important information about legal
matters of the early church. He also entrusted her to un-
dertake certain actions on his behalf in his absence, not
customary for women in those times. Elizabeth
Suderman Klaassen in Trailblazer for the Brethren has
enlarged on Katharina Claassen's contribution to the

WOMEN IN THE MENNON1TE BRETHREN CHURCH

181

development of the Mennonite Brethren church in this
biography.

Jakob Reimer, another of the leaders, had a high re-
gard for women and mentions them frequently in his
writings. He states he was influenced theologically, es-
pecially with regard to baptism, by Anne Judson, wife of
Baptist missionary Adoniram Judson, with the result
that the first baptism performed by the secessionists
used the form of immersion.

Historian P.M. Friesen also had a high regard for
women and mentions them freely. He writes that the de-
termining influences on his life were his mother and eld-
est sister, charter members of the church. He credits his
wife with being his "best secretary" as he worked with
five thousand pages of manuscript. According to A.A.
Vogt's index of persons named in Friesen's history, 97
women are mentioned, most of them either teachers,
missionaries, or wives of church workers. Not all, of
course, are Mennonite Brethren. By contrast J.H.
Lohrenz's The Mennonite Brethren Church includes no
women in the biographical section and J.A. Toews's A
History of the Mennonite Brethren Church lists only
nine women in the index.

2. A second major contribution by women was their
gift of hospitality. "Share with God's people who are in
need. Practice hospitality" writes the author of Romans,
after discussing the gifts of the Spirit (Rom. 12).
Because the Mennonite Brethren had no meeting houses
of their own at first, all services were held in homes.
Traveling ministers and their families, some of whom
were fleeing or moving to other areas to escape harass-
ment, found refuge in homes. Because at first the
Mennonite Brethren church was a house (home) or
small group movement, and few houses were very large,

182 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

women will have been much aware of what was hap-
pening and more involved than at first seems apparent,

3. According to historian Cornelius Krahn, The em-
phasis on spontaneous conversion and antipathy toward
tradition broke barriers and promoted equality in gener-
al, and also between the sexes. Pauls admonition, 'Let
the women be silent in the churches,' (1 Cor. 14:34) was
interpreted to mean only that women should not
preach" in the early Mennonite Brethren church. "With
the introduction of Bible study, prayer meeting, Sunday
school, and mission societies, a wide field was opened for
women. Now they could express their views in Bible
studies, they participated audibly in prayer meetings,
they taught Sunday school classes, discussed missionary
affairs in sewing circles and many other organizations,
and as mission workers engaged in direct evangelism
and teaching."

A close reading of Friesen's history supports Krahn's
views of the status of women in the Mennonite Brethren
church. They contributed by taking part in the singing,
prayers, testimonies, and discussion of Bible passages.
Friesen reports that the Kuban church, formed later on,
was especially blessed with vital and pious praying sis-
ters. He adds, somewhat humorously, "Day and night
one could undoubtedly say, there was always a priest in
the holy place . . . even though it was a priestess, ac-
cording to the New Testament pattern: 'There is nei-
ther male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus'
(Gal. 3:28)." Obviously, he delighted in the role re-
versals. Women were converted, baptized, and received
into membership, but also excommunicated during time
of emotional excesses.

The question of how much they actually participated
in the more formal meetings is not clear, although it is

WOMEN IN THE MENNONTTE BRETHREN CHURCH

183

possible to make assumptions similar to Krahn's views.
It is also not clear from the Friesen account whether
women participated in annual brotherhood consulta-
tions or conventions as the church grew. By 1879, six-
teen years after the church was founded, the General
Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches in America
decided this issue by agreeing that "sisters may take
part in church activities as the Holy Spirit leads.
However, they should not preach or take part in dis-
cussion meetings of the church." At the same convention
the continuing participation of women in mission work
was affirmed.

4. In addition to considerable participation in church
life during the early years, women had two other ties
with the church, although neither was a policy-making
role. As already mentioned, women were encouraged to
become missionaries. They also became members of sew-
ing societies in their home congregations primarily to
support missions. These women's groups were trans-
planted to America from Russia and here underwent
various transformations, sometimes functioning as an
auxiliary to the church and later on sometimes almost
as a church in themselves, operating almost parallel to
the congregation with its own budget, aggressive pro-
gram, membership list, and annual meetings and re-
treats. These women's groups have become a significant
part of a caring ministry in the church for missionary
families, for overseas nationals, especially women and
children in recent decades.

Friesen mentions that Mennonites generally were
recognized for their sacrificial donations of money, ser-
vices, and products, including clothing, bedding, and
bandages as the need arose during the war years in
Russia, including the Crimean war, all of which activ-

184 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

ities will have involved women. Women are mentioned
in the literature of the famine years in South Russia,
following the Russian Revolution, as setting out food for
beggars, of carrying food to a starving neighbor, of car-
ing for the sick — their own and that of the enemy an-
archists. This role of caring for the needy in good times
and bad was expected of them, but because it was not
institutionalized, the official record of their contribution
is often missing.

5. The gift of women's suffering for their faith in
Russia has not been recognized to the same extent as it
was during anabaptist times when women were per-
secuted for their faith just like the men. Martyrs' Mirror
includes stories of many such women as does the small
book Geschichte der Maertyrer, which covers the stories
of early Mennonite martyrs to about 1782 and lists at
least one-third women. A.A. Toews ? Mennonitische
Maertyrer by contrast mentions only one woman by
name in the index together with her husband and an en-
try "women martyrs" about three pages long.

Yet a careful study of this book reveals that when
men were imprisoned, conscripted, exiled, women re-
mained at home and endured, clinging to the faith, cher-
ishing it, and nurturing it so that when times improved,
the church could again pick up its mission. Because they
were living on the underside of history as wives, sisters,
and mothers, and men were in the public sphere as
church leaders, their stories were omitted or given
glancing notice. Paradoxically, women wrote many of
the accounts in Toews' book of their husbands' suffering.

Overseas workers in missions or in Mennonite
Central Committee service frequently mention that the
bottom line of suffering in Third World countries is al-
ways the suffering of women. When there isn't enough

WOMEN EN THE MENNONXTE BRETHREN CHURCH

185

food, women are the last to eat. When there isn't enough
work, women are the first to be out of work. When there
isn't enough room at school or enough money for fees,
girls are the first to stay home. It is true, however, that
when the church is persecuted, men, particularly church
leaders, are often the first to be affected, nor should any-
one deny their suffering as other than real, intense, and
tragic. But the suffering of the women left behind to
care for the family's total needs, to deal with the mental
and emotional anguish because of the absence of loved
ones, sometimes physically abused, sexually assaulted,
and also exiled, imprisoned, or murdered, is equally
real, intense, and tragic. It deserves at least a nodding
recognition in view of the fact that without these wom-
en's will to trust a sovereign God who allowed such suf-
fering, the church would have ceased to exist.

Stories are recorded of how, during the trek from the
Ukraine to Poland and Germany following World War 2,
a trek composed mostly of women, children, and older or
sickly men, when people died or were killed by bombing
attacks, women spoke a hymn and said the final prayer
before the shallow grave was closed.

During the years when groups of Mennonite believ-
ers living in Siberia and Asiatic Russia were without
spiritual leadership, women arranged meetings, read
the Bible, and sang hymns, write A. and K Plett and M.
Peters in A Wilderness Journey: Glimpses of the
Mennonite Brethren Church in Russia 1925-1980 . These
women's faith gleamed in that dark period like the quiet
shining of a lamp, lighting the way for the next genera-
tion. Women kept the faith and modeled the Christian
life in faithfulness to God during one of the most dif-
ficult periods of Mennonite history.

186 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Mennonite Brethren Women in North America

At one time women were excluded from congrega-
tional business meetings in North American congrega-
tions. They couldn't vote. They couldn't even listen in.
Then, in 1879, someone at a General Conference conven-
tion asked: "How do we feel about sisters attending such
meetings?"

The delegates decided "the sisters could take part in
the services as God's Spirit led them, but not to hold a
teaching position and to keep silent in brotherhood de-
liberations." Each church should decide whether or not
women could vote for a teaching minister or elder.
Today I know of no congregation where women are not
allowed such participation.

Involvement in conference decision-making struc-
tures also came slowly — but it did come. Women have
long been present at conferences as silent observers —
usually in the back left comer of the auditoriums and in
the basement preparing the meals. The women usually
ate at a second setting, after the male delegates had eat-
en. They discussed issues with their husbands at home.
Today both single and married women attend church
conventions in increasing numbers as delegates and vis-
itors. Some conferences even provide food services and
child care, freeing women to attend all sessions.

About the turn of the century the General
Conference Mennonite Church under the leadership of
David Goertz began a deaconess training school in
Newton, Kansas, to develop single women's innate skills
and give them an opportunity for Christian service. The
first motherhouse was established in Newton under the
direction of Sister Frieda Kaufman.

WOMEN IN THE MENNONITE BRETHREN CHURCH 187

In exchange for vows of celibacy, poverty, and obedi-
ence for as long as the woman believed the diaconate
was her place of service, the diaconate promised her life-
time support, opportunity for service, and blessed her
ministry with ordination. Women from other branches
of the Mennonite church, including Krimmer Mennonite
Brethren and Mennonite Brethren, attended the school
in Newton as well as elsewhere before these schools
closed their doors in the late 1950s and 1960s.

Today women are attending seminary, earlier an al-
most entirely male institution, in increasing numbers.
Women are also involved in teaching Bible classes for
both women's and mixed classes.

Although deacons used to be male, today husband-
and-wife teams are being chosen, and occasionally a
woman (married or single) is called to this important
ministry on the basis of her own gifts. Wives are being
included as an important member of a pastoral couple,
although their role is not always clear.

Representation of women in local congregational and
conference structures has come slowly, although a few
women are being elected to local church as well as con-
ference committees and boards.

In some congregations women function as choir lead-
er, song leader, church moderator, and in youth min-
istries, and occasionally preach on Sunday mornings. In
a number of congregations in the United States and
Canada, a woman is a member of the full-time pastoral
staff in some capacity.

The story is obviously not yet complete. Some day
when another history of the Mennonite Brethren church
is written, may it include, along with the public church
statements and decisions, the private personal history of
its women, the domestic history of the family, the way

188 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

in which male-controlled institutions have affected
women's and men's lives, and how the consciousness
grew in the Mennonite Brethren church that God has
given spiritual gifts to both men and women for all
types of service.

Such a history will require reading between the
lines, perusing journals and memoirs, and perhaps read-
ing with a woman's eyes and emotions to recreate the
kinds of persons these early women were and how they
contributed to the growth of the church. The setting for
their early contribution has rarely been in the open, in
full view of congregations or church councils, but by the
hearth and by the lamp; and when the hearth was cold,
and the light nearly gone, it was in the darkness, wait-
ing for a new day to dawn for themselves, their families,
and the church.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

Bekker, Jacob P. Origin of the Mennonite Brethren Church .
Trans, by D.E. Pauls and A.E. Janzen. Mennonite
Brethren Historical Society of the Midwest, 1973.

Foote, Paulina. God's Hand over My Nineteen Years in China.
Mennonite Brethren Publishing House, 1962.

Friesen, P.M. The Mennonite Brotherhood in Russia (1789-
1910). Trans, by J.B. Toews et. al. Board of Christian
Literature, 1978.

Geschichte der Maertyrer oder kurze historische Nachricht
von den Verfolgungen der Mennoniten. Mennonitischen
Gemeinden Manitobas, 1938.

WOMEN IN THE MENNONTTE BRETHREN CHURCH

189

Janzen, A.E. and Herbert Giesbrecht. We Recommend . . .
Recommendations and Resolutions of the General
Conference of the Mennonite Brethren Churches , Board of
Christian Literature, 1978.

Klassen, Elizabeth Suderman. Trailblazers for the Brethren .
Herald Press, 1978.

Lohrenz, John H. The Mennonite Brethren Church. Board of
Foreign Missions, 1950.

"Mennonite Brethren Church." Mennonite Encyclopedia .
Mennonite Publishing House, 1959.

Peters, Alan. "Brotherhood and Family: Implications of
Kinship in Mennonite Brethren History." P.M. Friesen
and His History: Perspectives on Mennonite Life and
Thought, No. 2 . Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies,
1979.

Toews, A. A., ed. Mennonitische Maertvrer der Juengsten
Vergangenheit unter der Gegenwart Self-published,
1949.

Wiebe, Katie Funk. Our Lamps were Lit: An Informal History
of the Bethel Deaconness Hospital School of Nursing.
Bethel Hospital School of Nursing Alumnae Association,
1978.

. Women Among the Brethren: Stories of Fifteen

Mennonite Brethren and Krimmer Mennonite Brethren
Women . Board of Christian Literature, 1979.

Woelk, Heinrich and Gerhard Woelk. A Wilderness Journey:
Glimpses of the Mennonite Brethren Church in Russia
1925 - 1980 . Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies,
1982.

I

I

I

I

I

I

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

15

John E. Toews
Valerie Rempel

Summary and Implications

What Is the Discussion About?

Two interpretations are put forward in this book.
The first says there is a permanent and normative crea-
tion order that establishes the headship of men over
women, or that gives men the lead responsibility in
church ministries. It argues that this creation order was
instituted by God at creation. It finds confirmation in
the rest of the Old Testament in the patriarchal struc-
ture of family and community life in Israel, and by the
restriction of the priesthood to men. According to this in-
terpretation, redemption in Christ does not reverse crea-
tion order. It consistently reads the New Testament
texts that deal with church leadership and family re-
lations (1 Cor. 12 and 14, 1 Tim. 2 and Eph. 4) as using

192 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

creation order to limit the roles and ministries of
women.

This first interpretation views men and women as
equal in creation and redemption, but understands crea-
tion order to differentiate levels of responsibility for
each. These differentiated responsibilities place bound-
aries on the roles of women. Women are gifted for min-
istry just as men are, but the public exercise of their
ministries must occur within the context of male lead-
ership. The critical issue regarding the ministry of wom-
en is not giftedness, but differentiated gender roles
which limit certain ministries of women.

The second interpretation asserts the equality and
complementarity of men and women, and the full gifting
of women for church ministry. This interpretation is
based on four biblical teachings.

First, man and woman together represent the image
of God in creation (Ch. 4). Man and woman are equal
and different. The differentness is viewed as comple-
mentary. This view argues that the creation accounts do
not teach the subordination of woman to man. It notes
that man does not name woman — the classic symbol of
subordination — until after the fall. It does not read dis-
approval of women in leadership, even though such
leadership is rare (Ch. 5), nor does it understand the
Old Testament to teach the subordination of women
based on creation.

Secondly, the teaching and practice of Christ under-
score the equality of men and women (Ch. 6). Jesus and
the gospels reject sexual discrimination and eliminate
role differences based on gender.

Thirdly, salvation and baptism wipe out the sexual
differences that divide and alienate non-Christian peo-
ple and societies (Ch. 7). In Christ all people are equal

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

193

in terms of salvation and relations in the church. The
social consequences of baptism into the church are
equality; thus sexually determined church roles are end-
ed in Christ.

The fourth biblical teaching emphasizes the im-
portance of gifting by the Spirit for the ministry of men
and women (Chs. 8, 10). Women are gifted for lead-
ership in the church and exercise their gifts in the early
church.

The second interpretation reads the restrictive texts
as important to maintain sexual identity in the church,
and marriage and family commitments (1 Cor. 11, 14, 1
Tim. 2). The 1 Timothy 2 text either is an historically
time-specific instruction for the church in Ephesus that
cannot be universalized, or a text that again addresses
husband/wife relationships rather then church lead-
ership in public worship. Likewise, the Ephesians 5 text
concerns family relationships, not church leadership
issues.

The two interpretations agree on several important
points. First, men and women are equal as persons in
creation and redemption. Second, women are gifted for
ministry and should be freed and empowered by the
church to exercise their ministries.

The two interpretations differ only at one critical
point. The one says that women must exercise their gifts
under male leadership. The second says women are free
to exercise their gifts independently and inter-
dependent^ with men as equals. The first argues for
hierarchical relationships between men and women in
church leadership; the second argues for the liberation
of men and women from hierarchical relationships in
church leadership. The critical issue that divides the

194

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

two interpretations is the meaning of "creation order"
and "headship."

How Do We Interpret the Bible?

We have two different interpretations of the same
biblical texts in this book. Both interpretations are
made by people equally committed to the full inspiration
and authority of the Bible, and both are based on a care-
ful reading of the Bible. How can this be? How can the
teachers of the church disagree on biblical inter-
pretation? Such disagreements are a result of several
factors.

First, we are dealing with different texts written at
different times in history to address different issues in
the life of different believing communities, Israel and
the church. There is Genesis 1 and 2, there are the
words of Jesus, and there are the writings of Paul. The
latter represent the biggest problem. Paul says things
that directly affirm women in ministry, e.g., Romans
16:1-16 (women are identified as leaders, apostles and
co-workers), 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 (women pray and
prophesy publicly, gender differences "in Christ" are ir-
relevant), Galatians 3:28 (baptism erases social differ-
ences based on gender in the church), Philippians 4:2-3
(women are leaders in the church), and 1 Timothy 5:3-
16 (an "order" of widows serves the church). But Paul
also restricts the public role of women, e.g., 1
Corinthians 14:33b-36 (women are not to ask questions
in church), and 1 Timothy 2:8-15 (women are to learn
quietly, and are not permitted to usurp authority from
men). The problem is intensified by the use of words and
grammar that can have more than one meaning, for ex-
ample, the naming of Eve, the meaning of kephale
("head"), and authentein ("authority"). The same text

WHAT IS AT STAKE? 195

can be interpreted differently depending on which def-
inition an interpreter chooses.

Secondly, we are dealing with different interpreters.
Every interpreter brings a pre-understanding or bias to
the text. There is no such thing as "objective inter-
pretation." Gender, race, class, nationality, religious ex-
perience, marital status and experience, power status,
and many other historical and cultural realities, in-
fluence how each person interprets the text. Thus differ-
ent interpreters interpret the same texts, even the same
words, differently.

Such interpretive diversity is not new. It has char-
acterized the history of the church. Most theological dis-
agreements in the church are the result of equally com-
mitted believers interpreting the biblical text
differently.

The diversity in this book reflects the diversity of
text and interpreter. Elmer Martens and Allen
Guenther disagree on the interpretation of Genesis 1
and 2. Martens gives priority to Genesis 2, while
Guenther gives priority to Genesis 1. Martens thinks
the naming of Eve reflects a "creation order" hierarchy
of relationships, Guenther says the passive form of the
"naming" word only characterizes and does not order.
Guenther argues that since Adam's naming of Eve
comes after the fall, it reflects the hierarchy of sin rath-
er than of creation. Elmer Martens disagrees with John
E. Toews on the meaning of kephale ("head") and the
significance of "creation order" in the New Testament.
These are honest differences between equally committed
interpreters of the Bible, and in this case among friends
and colleagues in the same church and in the same sem-
inary of the church.

196

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Differences of biblical interpretation are a normal
part of church life. They always have been, and they al-
ways will be. The question is, how do we sort out which
of these interpretations is preferable?

One common approach says the critical guideline is
the starting point of diverse texts. This principle usually
says that priority should be given to the clear texts.
Genesis 1 is clear, but Genesis 2 involves a host of inter-
pretive issues and problems. One group argues that
Galatians 3:28 is the starting point for understanding
Paul. Others insist that 1 Timothy 2:11-15 is the clear-
est of the Pauline texts, and should be the "window" for
understanding the other Pauline texts. There is, of
course, nothing in the Bible itself which tells us which
texts should be given priority. That decision already re-
flects the bias we bring to the text. The issue of which
text is the clearer is itself a controversial matter. The 1
Timothy 2 text is filled with serious, and in some cases
unresolvable, difficulties (see Ch. 10 for details). On
strictly exegetical grounds the Genesis 1 and Galatians
3 texts are much clearer texts. But that is not the main
point of this section. It is, rather, that the question of
which text we use as a starting point is itself an open
question; the Bible itself gives no guidance on that
question.

A second, and theologically more fruitful principle,
says that differing texts must be ordered on the basis of
which expresses the essence of the gospel most clearly.
Two approaches may be used.

The first approach starts with Jesus. Jesus is under-
stood to be the norm for ordering conflicting texts.
Everyone is agreed that Jesus' relationships with wom-
en were revolutionary. Susan Foh, a conservative evan-
gelical, and Mary Daly, a post-Christian feminist, are

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

197

agreed that what Jesus did with and for women should
change once and for all the way the church and the
western world views and treats women (see Foh, 90-94,
Daly, 79-80). On the basis of this principle, the liber-
ating Pauline texts are given priority over the more re-
strictive texts.

The second approach starts with the theological es-
sence of the gospel. The gospel of grace, forgiveness, and
freedom is the starting point. Thus F.F. Bruce argues
that the Pauline texts which liberate women for min-
istry are closest to the intention of Paxil. The restrictive
texts are examples of adaptation for a specific time and
setting, and must not be normative for other times and
places (see Gasque).

The attempt to order the relationship of texts on the
basis of the essence of the gospel introduces a profound
theological issue. Such ordering distinguishes between
the authority of the text and its normativeness. The
whole Bible is authoritative. But the text functions dif-
ferently in different times and places. For example, the
command to "greet one another with a holy kiss" is au-
thoritative (it is commanded 5 times — Rom. 16:16; 1
Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thes. 5:26; 1 Pet. 5:14^-in the
NT), but it is not practiced today because times have
changed. People greet each other differently today than
in the first century. Paul's command for women to wear
a head covering is no longer expected because times
have changed. Paul's restrictive words in 1 Corinthians
14 and 1 Timothy 2 are authoritative. Are they nor-
mative today? Or, have the specific occasions which
called forth those instructions changed? These are ques-
tions on which equally committed evangelical people dis-
agree. The point of disagreement is not the authority, or

198 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

even the interpretation, of the text, but the applicability
of a specific text in our time.

Is There a Permanent Creation Order?

One of the critical points of disagreement in the two
interpretations of this book is the status of "creation or-
der" Elmer Martens sees a permanent and normative
creation order — male headship over women instituted
by God in the creation accounts — that necessitates male
leadership over women in the home and in the church.
The other writers do not see such a permanent creation
order. Allen Guenther reads the creation accounts to un-
derline the equality and complementarity of men and
women. Gordon and Lorraine Matties disagree that the
Old Testament uses creation order or the fall (Gen. 3) to
subordinate women.

What about the New Testament? The creation ac-
counts are used four times in the New Testament. Jesus
uses Genesis 1:27— God made humanity male and fe-
male — and 2:24 — a man is to leave father and mother
and become one flesh with his wife — to reject divorce.
The text says nothing about a creation hierarchy or
about the subordination of woman to man, only that a
man is to leave his parental home and become genuinely
one with his wife. The problem seems to lie with the
man, not the woman.

Paul uses Genesis 1:27 in 1 Corinthians 11 to argue
the necessity of a head covering for women in the church
and to underline the interdependence of men and wom-
en. Again, there is no talk of hierarchy or subordination
of women to men. The only issue is proper dress for
women in public ministry. Genesis 2:24 is used in
Ephesians 5 to command husbands to love their wives
as Christ loved the church, not to exhort wives to be

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

199

submissive to their husbands. There is no hierarchy;
mutual submission is asked of both the wife and the
husband. 1 Timothy 2 uses Genesis 2:7 and 22 to ex-
plain why women should learn quietly (the only com-
mand in the text), and why Paul does not permit wives
to sexually seduce or manipulate their husbands as part
of their teaching. Hierarchical relations and submission
language is not used in the text.

Old and New Testament usage raises serious ques-
tions about any kind of creation order. Such an order is
certainly not explicit in any text. And where creation ac-
counts are used in the New Testament, they are used
primarily to exhort men, not women.

What Is the Meaning of Headship?

A second matter of common disagreement is the
meaning of "headship." Some interpreters argue that
headship clearly teaches a hierarchical relationship be-
tween men and women in the home and in the church,
and the necessity of women to submit to men in the
home and in the church. The problem is whether the
meaning of kephale ("head") in Greek is "source" or
"chief."

In the English language "head" usually means the
one with authority over others. But in Greek the mean-
ing is not that simple. The most comprehensive dic-
tionary of the Greek language lists over twenty possible
meanings for kephale. The primary meaning has to do
with source or origin. Although possible, the use of ke-
phale to mean "chief or "the person of highest rank" is
very rare in Greek. The point is that kephale has multi-
ple meanings.

The meaning in any particular text must be de-
termined by the context, including the other words used

200 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

in association with it. The only texts in the women in
ministry discussion that use kephale are 1 Corinthians
11 and Ephesians 5 (see Chs. 8 and 9 for details). The
word is not used in 1 Corinthians 14 or 1 Timothy 2.
Most commentators agree that in 1 Corinthians 11 it
means source; its meaning is defined by the creation ref-
erence in w. 8-9 which speak of man as the source of
woman and woman as the source of man. Ephesians 5
uses it to describe the relationship of the wife to the
husband. The husband is characterized as the head of
the wife. What follows makes it clear that this headship
does not mean authority over, but rather service under.
For the husband to be the head of the wife means to love
her, not to subordinate her.

The New Testament clearly uses headship language,
but not to argue for a hierarchical relationship between
men and women or to make the case for the sub-
ordination of women to men. Headship means men and
women sire the source of each other's lives, and that men
are to love their wives.

The authors of this chapter believe that neither crea-
tion order nor headship as a hierarchical structure can
be used to argue that women may exercise their gifts
(the point on which all authors are agreed) only under
the leadership of men (the only point on which the au-
thors disagree). We believe the evidence favors the full
equality of men and women in creation, redemption and
ministry, and therefore, frees women to exercise the
gifts of ministry given them by the Holy Spirit for the
upbuilding of the church.

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

201

Why Are There No Clear Examples of Women
Ministering in the New Testament?

The question asked most often is, if the preceding in-
terpretation of freedom for ministry is correct, why
doesn't the New Testament give us examples of women
ministering in the early church? We think it does.

Acts reports that four daughters of the evangelist
Philip prophesied in the church. Romans 16 reports nine
women in important roles in the mission and life of the
Roman congregation. Phoebe is a deaconness and a pa-
tron of the church at Cenchreae. In addition, Paul iden-
tifies a series of other female co-workers: Prisca (w. 3-
5), Mary (v. 6), Junia, an apostle (v. 7), Tryphaena,
Tryphosa, Persis, Julia and Nereus sister (w. 12-15). 1
Corinthians adds Chloe and Philippians names Euodia
and Syntyche (see Chs. 2, 7, 10).

The fact that women are singled out in letters writ-
ten by Paul to whole congregations suggests that they
held leadership positions. What emerges from these
names is a clear picture of women who worked at the
center of the Pauline mission and congregational life.

One other example is worth noting. 2 John begins
with "the elder to the elect lady and her children, whom
I love in the truth." Some commentators suggest the
"elect lady* means the church, but the simplest and
most obvious reading is that the woman was the leader
of the "house church" and the "children" were the
Christians who met in her home (John often calls believ-
ers "children," e.g., 1 Jn. 2:1, 3:18, 5:2, 21, and 3 Jn. 4).

Why Now?

Even if the above were true, why does the call for the
affirmation of women in ministry come at this time? Is
the church not simply absorbing the ideas of secular

202 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

feminism? Is the church not being conformed to the
culture?

In part, the answer is yes. The church is always in-
fluenced by the prevailing culture. There can be no
doubt that the feminist movement in the Western world
has influenced us in the church, just as secular capital-
ist ideas have deeply shaped thought and life in the
church. Ironically, there is scholarship which suggests
that the feminist movement also owes much to evangel-
ical women who formed the heart of the missionary
movement during the late 19th and early 20th cen-
turies. Larger cultural movements have always in-
fluenced the church, and taught the church to read the
Bible through new eyes. But this explanation is too su-
perficial. There are other, deeper forces of change at
work in our culture.

Feminism is part of a much larger pattern of change
in Western society. At one time people were assigned
roles in life based on forces outside of their control, such
as class, religion, race, gender, ethnic identity, marital
status and geographic location. Some were farmers be-
cause that is what their parents were; others were mer-
chants, or teachers, or servants. This has changed in the
modern West. Today, roles are much more a matter of
choice and ability. We no longer ask who a person's par-
ents were or on what side of the tracks the person lived,
but whether the person is competent for the job or role
he or she undertakes. Most of us are grateful for this
change. We are immensely thankful that even though
our parents were poor, or uneducated, we now can be-
come business persons, schoolteachers, university pro-
fessors, health care professionals, lawyers, or pastors.
But in the church we often forget that the movement
away from ascribed roles cannot be neatly cut off at a

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

203

certain point. The very people who greatly benefit from
new opportunities cannot suddenly say they are not
open to women in the church. We need to realize that we
are dealing with a large social pattern that most of us
support most of the time.

Two areas have become the focus of controversy in
the West: race and gender. Today almost everyone in
North American society agrees that people should not be
forbidden certain roles because of race, and most people
say the same should be true for gender. Yet some in the
church want to say that because of gender, certain per-
sons should be restricted in the exercise of God-given
gifts. Even if the movement of feminism disappeared,
the pressure for gender inclusiveness would continue to
build in the church. Why? Because we are dealing with
a larger social pattern that cannot be arbitrarily cut off.
Women now enjoy the benefits of education, both sec-
ular and theological. They read their Bibles and learn
for themselves the message of Gods justice and libera-
tion. They experience the gifting of the Holy Spirit for
ministry. They hear and respond affirmatively to the
call of God to exercise their gifts. But too often, they dis-
cover that the church refuses to let them exercise their
gifts (usually while denying that it has), and refuses to
acknowledge that they have received a call from God
(again while denying that it has), simply because they
are women. Many men and women are asking, why?
The question raised is one of justice. People are asking
why gender is relevant when God gives gifts of ministry.
Clearly the gifts of the Spirit are relevant, but why
gender?

The old answer that "this is how God wants it w no
longer works. Women can read and interpret the Bible
themselves. They know that many biblical passages af-

204 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

firm their ministry, and that the traditionally restrictive
texts are problematic at multiple levels. Furthermore,
they have heard the church say that men and women
are spiritually equal. They are aware that the church
has blessed the significant contributions of women in
overseas mission fields and parachurch organizations.
Many women and men can no longer accept the idea
that all are spiritually equal, but that in the ministries
of the local church they are unequal.

There was a time, especially during the last century
and the early part of this century, when the church re-
sponded much more positively to the decline of gender-
based roles. Women were much freer to minister and to
lead in the church from the seventeenth through the
early part of the twentieth century. The Protestant
Reformation's break with the Catholic concept of the
minister as priest, based on the Old Testament priest-
hood, had liberating consequences for the ministry of
women. John Calvin believed that the freedom of wom-
en to minister was a matter of human opinion based on
particular cultures rather than a clear teaching of
Scripture. Free church traditions, especially Anabaptist
and Quaker, gave women special opportunity to min-
ister in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A good
number of women can be identified as ministers among
the Baptists in Holland, England and America. The
theological ground for this acceptance was an under-
standing that the Spirit empowers both men and women
for ministry. The Wesley revivals in the eighteenth cen-
tury encouraged both lay men and women to preach and
minister. The same occurred in the eighteenth-century
Great Awakening in America and the Evangelical
Awakening in the nineteenth century. The revivalists
stressed the importance of personal experience with God

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

205

as a criterion for ministry. Many women responded. In
fact, women were often viewed as more religious and
spiritual than men in a theology of "true womanhood"
that developed during this century.

In addition, women were given new educational op-
portunities. As they studied the Bible on their own they
felt increasingly called by God into church ministries.
They moved to the vanguard of the anti-slavery and re-
vival movements. The more they worked for the freedom
of blacks, in part on the basis of texts like Galatians
3:28, the more they recognized their own equality and
freedom in Christ.

The nineteenth century became known as the age of
woman preachers. Three of the great preachers of the
century were Phoebe Palmer, a Methodist evangelist
and revivalist, Catherine Booth, founder of the
Salvation Army, and Hannah Whithall Smith, one of the
key founders of the Keswick Conference. Many de-
nominations — Free Will Baptists, Free Methodists,
Quakers, Brethren Church, Christian Missionary
Alliance, the Church of God (Anderson, Ind.), the
Church of God (Cleveland), Evangelical Free Church,
Church of the Nazarene, American Baptists, and vari-
ous Pentecostal groups — affirmed, even ordained, wom-
en for ministry.

All of this changed in the 1920s. The evangelical
movement of the post- World War I era became re-
strictive on the question of women in ministry (see Ch.
12, and the article by Gloria Redekop for the same pat-
tern in the Mennonite Brethren Church). An affirmation
and openness for ministry that was experienced theo-
logically and practically throughout the nineteenth cen-
tury suddenly became a problem. Women were now told
that they were excluded from ministry because of their
gender.

206 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Most women in evangelical American churches en-
dured the post-1920 restrictions patiently, though pain-
fully, until the 1950s. However, the evangelical ren-
aissance of the 1950s included a growing desire and
calling by women to exercise the gifts of the Spirit in the
church. That desire has increased with the rejection of
ascribed gender roles in the West. Today this growing
desire has become a loud crescendo calling for true bib-
lical justice and the freedom to exercise the gifts and the
call the Spirit gives to the church.

Why now? First, because the inner structure and the
basic values of western culture are changing. Roles
based on ascribed characteristics are being replaced by
roles based on choice and competence. These changes
came about because of the teachings and activities of
the church in proclaiming the gospel over the centuries.
Secondly, because the church has become more re-
strictive since 1920. Consequently, the cries of pain from
women gifted for ministry have become louder and the
calls for change more strident. If certain forms of min-
istry by women created problems in the culture of the
Pauline churches (note the honor and shame language
used in 1 Corinthians 14 and 1 Timothy 2), the opposite
is true today. In our day, insisting on the silence of
women in the church brings shame on the church.

What Shall We Do in the Church?

We live between the times on many issues in the
church. The role of women in church ministry is one of
these issues. What, then, shall we do? First, we must
recognize and accept diversity in biblical interpretation.
Equally evangelical students of the Bible read the same
texts differently. The diversity presents us an op-
portunity for fruitful conversation and study in the

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

207

church. Because we are not dealing with a confessional
issue that affects the evangelical theology or churchly
identity of the church, we need to bless this honest di-
versity and free people and churches to come to different
conclusions on the basis of careful study and sincere
convictions.

Secondly, all the writers in this book agree that we
need to affirm all the gifts irrespective of gender. God's
Spirit gifts all Christians. Ministry is a function of bap-
tism into the church. Baptism by water and the Spirit
affects a gifting by God. All the gifts are to be enabled
for ministry.

We agree with James Packer, evangelical theologian
of Regent College. The church must give theological pri-
ority to gifts over offices in structuring the ministry of
the church. The gifts are God's gifts to the church, not
ours. All the gifts should be recognized, enabled and ex-
ercised for the well-being of the church. These gifts in-
clude leaders whose responsibility is to order and enable
the many diverse gifts for the effective functioning of
the whole. Church offices or church governance struc-
tures are not divinely mandated. Different cultural pat-
terns and congregational preferences are responsible for
the institutionalization of gifts into offices. Therefore,
the difference in structure between the Jerusalem
churches, the Antioch churches, and the Pauline church-
es. We believe the priority of gifts over office, and then
the discernment and enablement of gifts, should be the
starting point for all reflections on women and men in
church ministry today.

Thirdly, we should use inclusive people language in
the church. Why? Because the meaning of words has
changed. When our grandparents said that God calls all
men to serve the kingdom and the church, they were un-

208 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

derstood to mean that all Christians, men and women,
are called by God to service. If we use the same words
today, we are understood to say that God calls men, but
not women.

The meaning of words like "man" and "men" has
changed because the times have changed. Our grand-
parents lived in an era when neither women nor men as
a whole were conscious that women's experiences were
different than men's. Gradually, however, some words
became more restricted in meaning. Under the impact of
modern scientific and historical thought, some words
lost the ability to have generic meaning and took on spe-
cific meaning. "Men" no longer denoted all people, but
men as males in contrast to women as females. Women
became conscious of themselves as female. As this con-
sciousness grew, language changed even further.

Our grandparents used inclusive language, but now
the same words are considered exclusive. They shut out
over half the members of the church, and may act as a
hindrance to the mission of the church as it seeks to
reach unbelieving men and women. We need to learn to
use inclusive language in the church, language that rec-
ognizes and blesses all people in their maleness and
femaleness.

Fourthly, we must deal honestly and compas-
sionately with contemporary fear and anxiety about
changing role identities. We do not believe that the real
issues concerning women in church ministry are bib-
lical, but psychological and sociological. The deeper is-
sues are personal questions of sexuality, power and per-
sonal identity. These changes are even more
complicated because we have based traditional self-
understandings and roles on our understanding of what
the Bible teaches.

WHAT IS AT STAKE?

209

Men have been in power for centuries; they have
been able to control the powerless — women — and to ex-
hort them to be submissive and content. They have been
conditioned to view women as sexual objects, tempta-
tions and distractions. Too often they have held women
responsible for their [men's] sins, especially sexual sins.
When all of that changes, when men are asked, even
forced by the larger pressures in the culture, to accept
and respect women as equals and as colleagues, male
identity is threatened at its profoundest levels. It is time
for the church to talk openly and honestly about male
anxieties in times of massive cultural and personal
change. Such honest and compassionate conversation in
the church will also help address one of the profoundest
indices of this fear and insecurity, male abuse of women
in the home and in the church.

Women are also afraid. With increasing freedom
comes the responsibility of choice. Many women are
threatened by the changing demands of the culture.
They are afraid that the roles of homemaker and mother
will be devalued. They do not always understand the
desire of some women to exercise leadership gifts in the
church. Again, honest and compassionate conversation
is needed to bring about acceptance of the diversity of
gifts to be found in the church.

We conclude with a note from church history. There
is an almost total disappearance of arguments about
gender roles in the church during times of spiritual re-
newal. Revival-based equality stands in contrast to
much current concern in the church with figuring out a
"correct" view of women in ministry. Kari Malcolm, a
Wheaton College graduate, says it well: "We have a
world to win for Christ. The ship is sinking, we are
standing on the shore arguing about who should go to
the rescue — men or women" (Malcolm, 132).

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YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

ENDNOTES

Daly, Mary. The Church and the Second Sex . Harper, 1975.

Foh, Susan T. Women and the Word of God: A Response to
Biblical Feminism. Baker, reprint, 1980.

Gasque, Ward and Laurel. "F.F. Bruce: A Mind for What
Matters." Christianity Today (April 7, 1989): 22-25.

Malcolm, Kari. Women at the Crossroads . InterVarsity, 1982.

Packer, J. I. "Understanding the Differences." Women.
Authority and the Bible, ed. Alvera Michelsen.
InterVarsity, 1986. 295-99.

Redekop, Gloria Neufeld. "The Understanding of Woman's
Place among Mennonite Brethren in Canada: A Question
of Biblical Interpretation". Conrad Grebel Review 8
(1990): 259-274.

Scholer, David M. "Feminist Hermeneutics and Evangelical
Biblical Interpretation." Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society 30 (1987): 407-420.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 211

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Raymond O. Bystrom is Assistant Professor of Pastoral
Ministries at Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary in
Fresno, California. He has served two pastorates in
British Columbia, Killarney Park in Vancouver, and
Cedar Park in Delta.

David Ewert is Visiting Professor of New Testament at
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. He is a leading
New Testament teacher among the Mennonite
Brethren, having taught at Mennonite Brethren Bible
College in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Mennonite Brethren
Biblical Seminary in Fresno, and Eastern Mennonite
Seminary in Harrisonburg, Virginia.

Timothy Geddert is on a three-year service leave (1990-
93) as Assistant Professor of New Testament at
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. He and his wife,
Gertrud, are serving as pastoral couple in Ingolstad,
Germany. Tim previously served as pastor in Fort
McMurray, Alberta.

Allen R. Guenther is Professor of Old Testament at
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. He has served
as a pastor in Alberta and Ontario, and as an instructor
at Mennonite Brethren Bible College in Winnipeg,
Manitoba.

Edmund Janzen is moderator of the Mennonite Brethren
Churches in North America, and professor of biblical
studies at Fresno Pacific College in Fresno, California.
He has served as a pastor in North Dakota and
California.

212 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Elmer A. Martens is Professor of Old Testament at
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. He has served
as a pastor in California, and as President of the
Seminary.

Gordon H. Matties is a professor of Old Testament at
Mennonite Brethren Bible College in Winnipeg,
Manitoba.

Lorraine E. Matties is a homemaker and free-lance writer
in Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Marilyn Peters is a homemaker and business woman in
Fresno, California. She is a graduate of Mennonite
Brethren Biblical Seminary and has done advanced
studies in church history.

Katrina Poetker is a doctoral student in New Testament
at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. She and her
husband, Alden, have recently completed a missionary
assignment in Sao Paulo, Brazil, under Mennonite
Brethren Missions/Services.

Vaierie Rempel is Administrative Assistant to the
Academic Dean and Director of Admissions at
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. She is com-
pleting an M.A. in church history.

John E. Toews is Academic Dean and Professor of New
Testament at Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary.
He also has taught at Fresno Pacific College in Fresno,
Conrad Grebel College in Waterloo, Ontario, and Tabor
College in Hillsboro, Kansas.

Katie Funk Wiebe is Professor Emeritus of Tabor College,
Hillsboro, Kansas. She taught English at Tabor for 23
years, and is the author of ten books and hundreds of
articles.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 213

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Chapter 1

1. The Mennonite Brethren Church began as a move-
ment among like-minded people who wanted to be
biblical in a churchly reading of the Bible. Members
of the church met to study the Bible and ask, "What
does the Bible say?" What is the role of the local con-
gregation today in becoming an "interpreting" com-
munity with regard to issues that affect its life to-
gether? How should Mennonite Brethren determine
which interpretation to use when Bible teachers hold
to various interpretations?

2. The topic of women's ministry has two sides, as John
E. Toews explains. Clarify what these two sides are.
Have class members share their experiences with
both sides of the issue.

3. What factors in our society and in our churches have
brought the issue of women's ministry to a head?
Consider such factors as biblical scholarship, empha-
sis on gifts, women's education, smaller families, ca-
reers and jobs for women, the professionalization of
traditional women's ministries, such as health care
and hospitality.

4. You will frequently come across the term "restrictive
texts" in this book. They are primarily 1 Corinthians
11:2-16, 14:34-36, and 1 Timothy 2:11-15. Read these
over in several versions before you begin this study.

214 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Chapter 2

1. Have the class list examples of women, living or
dead, whom they think of as having a spiritual min-
istry. List the various types of ministries included in
this list. How does it differ from men's ministries?

2. It is often said that God will only call women to lead-
ership positions if no able men are available. Was
this true for Miriam, Huldah, Deborah, Esther,
Ruth, Lydia, and Phoebe?

3. In what sense was God's covenant with the Israelites
intended for both women and men? How was Sarah
included in the covenant?

Chapter 3

1. What does it mean for men and women, single as
well as married, to be made in the image of God?
How does this affect our understanding of God? Of
ourselves? Of our responsibilities as citizens of this
planet?

2. Why did God create two sexes? Consider reasons
such as procreation and companionship. Can you
think of others?

3. A key issue for discussion in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 is
whether the pronouncement of the curse on Adam
and Eve is a prescription for the roles of men and
women as the will of God for all time or a description
of the outcome of humanity's sin, which Christ came
to redeem. How do you resolve it?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 215

4. African-Americans were kept in submission during
slavery because some people saw this arrangement
as "natural," or a God-given order. Can this his-
torical event be used to argue for women's equality
by analogy?

Chapter 4

1. You will find alternative interpretations of the word
"helper" in succeeding chapters. Be sure you under-
stand what they are. If "helper" means the woman is
equal to but expected to submit to her husband as
leader of the home, what implications does this have
for marriage? If "helper" means one who is equal to
and mutually shares in family decision-making,
what implications does this have for marriage? For
male/female relationships in a congregation?
Withhold final judgment until you have studied
Chapters 9 and 10.

2. How did the Fall alter the relationship of man and
woman together, and both to God? Do the judgments
pronounced on man and woman, following the break
in their relationship to each other and to God, intend
to establish the situation for all time, or do they in-
dicate that God's intention was a restoration of the
pre-Fall relationships?

3. Since varying positions exist within our de-
nominational membership and all appeal to the
Scriptures in support of their views, how can value
judgments be avoided while acknowledging sexual
differences?

4. Review the questions in Chapter 3 in light of what
Chapter 4 teaches.

216

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

Chapter 5

1. Proverbs 31 is a poem in praise of a character type.
List the kinds of activities the woman was involved
in both inside and outside the home.

2. In what ways were women honored, respected, and
protected in Old Testament times? What limitations
were placed upon them?

3. The writers of this chapter state that the example of
the male priesthood in Israel cannot be used to
argue the exclusion of women from leadership in the
church. Review their arguments. How do you re-
spond to them?

4. How do you envision Joel's words about women
"prophesying" in the last days coming to pass (Joel
2:28-29)?

5. How does our knowledge of God's vision for human-
ity enable us to interpret the specific situations re-
garding women's role and ministry in the Old
Testament?

Chapter 6

1. What are the main characteristics of a good friend-
ship? Do you see these qualities present in Jesus' re-
lationship with Mary and Martha?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 217

2. Mary was the first person to meet the resurrected
Christ and the first to receive a message "to go tell."
Why did the angel and then Jesus entrust women
with this important message first? The question has
several aspects. Some scholars say it was because
they were doing their womanly duty to prepare dead
bodies. Other say it was because they were faithful.
Discuss.

3. From the gospel accounts, how do we know that
women were part of Jesus' audiences?

4. List examples from the gospels of Jesus 1 radical re-
lationship to the women of his time. Why didn't he
include women among the twelve disciples?

5. Can you think of a woman Jesus criticized? How do
you explain what you find or do not find?

6. How does Jesus' attitude toward and relationship
with women guide our understanding of the issue?

Chapter 7

1. Read Romans 16 and Philippians 4. Then list the
names of women and their ministry. Do you see a
pattern evolving?

2. How should a true son or daughter of Abraham be
recognized (Luke 3:8; 19:8-9)?

3. Is the issue of women's rights and slavery (civil
rights) related to Galatians 3:28? Why didn't Paul
speak more directly to issues of racial and sexual
prejudice?

218

YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

4. How would you summarize Paul's practice regarding
the ministry of women?

Chapter 8

1. Over the years the church has changed its thinking
about the wearing of a headcovering. In an earlier
period some women quickly threw an apron or cloth
over their heads to observe this custom at family
prayers. Why has this custom been dropped?

% Compare the view of "head" as source with the view
in Chapter 3.

3. How do you reconcile the teaching of women's sub-
mission to men (with the implication of maintenance
of headship, or power) with the teaching of the ser-
vanthood of all, which entails giving up power and
sacrificing for one another?

4. Is there an advantage for both men and women to re-
main single if they want to serve the Lord fully?

5. What is your understanding of the church as a "cho-
sen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a peo-
ple belonging to God"? How important is this under-
standing of the church as a priesthood to the
discussion of the use of men's and women's gifts?

6. What is the difference between status and function
(role)? Do their meanings overlap? Can men and
women have equal status but different functions
within the church?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 219

7. Can biblical teachings be interpreted faithfully apart
from a knowledge of the particular historical and
cultural situation in which they were written and
the audience to which they were addressed?

Chapter 9

1. What responsibilities do Christian families have to
oppose social and cultural patterns that are contrary
to the teaching of Scripture regarding the home and
family life?

2. What does it mean for a husband to love his wife,
"just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up
for her"? Does the Bible command women to obey
their husbands or is this their choice?

3. Much recent research indicates that wife and child
abuse is more frequent in homes where husbands be-
lieve in a narrow interpretation of women's sub-
mission. Why might this be the case?

4. Examine carefully the idea that only equals can sub-
mit to one another. Consider the Old Testament
bondservant who pledged lifelong servitude only af-
ter he was a free man.

5. If single men and women (widowed, never-married,
divorced) are not included in Paul's admonitions to
husbands and wives, what is their status and func-
tion in the church?

Chapter 10

1. Outline the three different interpretations of 1
Timothy 2:11-15. Which do your prefer? Why?

220 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

2. What are ways that some Christian women ma-
nipulate husbands to get their own way?

3. If the Timothy passage refers to the family situation
and not to the congregation, what changes will that
make in your thinking?

Chapter 11

1. Why do new and reform movements tend to be open
to the ministry of women whereas the in-
stitutionalized church is often restrictive?

2. How can we recognize outbursts of Spirit-directed
activity, or breakthroughs of a sovereign God in the
church? Is it possible that the Spirit may be doing a
new thing, but that we may not recognize it as God's
working?

3. How are gifts of members in your congregation dis-
cerned, called forth and utilized? Who in your con-
gregation is responsible for the calling forth of gifts
of all members?

Chapter 12

1. How can we emphasize the common ground men and
women share in the ministry of the church and avoid
adversarial roles?

2. What kinds of encouragement does your congrega-
tion give to both young women and men to enter
Christian service?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 221

3. What careers for girls and women are portrayed in
our church periodicals and curriculum materials? Is
the range of options adequate? Too narrow?

4. What Mennonite Brethren women do you hold up as
role models or mentors for your daughters and
friends? Read the stories of a number of courageous
women of faith in Women Among the Brethren edit-
ed by Katie Funk Wiebe.

5. Have someone research the difference between or-
dination and commissioning and report to the class.

Chapter 13

1. How can we avoid the battle of prooflexting in a dis-
cussion of a topic such as this, which has various in-
terpretations, all with biblical support? Can all parts
of Scripture actually be harmonized? Consider some
other controversial issues like the mode of baptism.
Will we always be faced with some passages we can-
not fully understand? Should this concern us?

2. Discuss the two main interpretations of the biblical
passages dealing with creation order as they relate
to the roles of women. What are the points of agree-
ment? of disagreement?

3. Why is it possible for people equally committed to
the inspiration and authority of the Bible to disagree
on the interpretation of certain passages?

4. How do we move the dialogue from a small group to
the entire congregation? How can we remain in di-
alogue with the Bible about this matter and other
culturally-related issues?

222 YOUR DAUGHTERS SHALL PROPHESY

5. How much should we consider the value of ex-
perience in our discussion? Men want to work at the-
ology, but women will frequently argue from
experience.

6. Do we need to think of the Bible in new ways?
Instead of thinking of the Scriptures only as what
God did in the past, is it important to think of what
God is continuing to do and still plans to do, as dur-
ing the Reformation period, for example?

7. Where is the wind of the Holy Spirit blowing in our
churches today? We are often unaware how much we
are driven by the spirit of our times. Where is God
doing a new thing in our midst and expanding the
walls of our tent?

8. Why is the question of women in ministry an issue
in our culture?

9. This chapter closes with the question: "What shall
we do in the church?" What is your response to this
question?

I

_M_n the last days," God says, "I will
pour out my spirit on all people.
Your sons and daughters will proph-
esy. . . Even on my servants, both
[lien and women, 1 will pour my
spirii in those days and will
prophesy" {Acts 2: 17-18)*

Careful examination of both Old
and New Testament texts sheds
insight on this very timely and con-
troversial topic. The struggle in the
Church is in how to understand the
Bible correctly in the midst of
changes in society and in the con-
text of diverse interpretations of
biblical texts. The intent of the
book is to su m til ate Bible study and
discussion about the role of women
in church ministry.

The authors, both men and
women, are teachers within the larg-
u Mi'iiiioniie Brethren church.

ISBN: 0-921788-14-2